Christina, I think I have everything here complete, although I am finishing the materials on this page: http://ourwayit.com/CA382/ExampleStudy.htm Let me know if you have any questions. Thanks so much for your help!!!
Joan
CA 382 Communication Research
Weekly Unit Content
Lecture
Example http://ourwayit.com/CA382/ExampleStudy.htm
Video
Discussion
Self Check Quiz
HERE IS A SELF CHECK QUIZ OR MORE FOR EACH WEEK
Week 1
APA Style Quiz http://www.niu.edu/writingtutorial/style/quizzes/APA.htm
Week 2
Chapter 1
Scientific Understanding of Behavior http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch1.html
http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch10.html
Chapter 2
Where to Start http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch2.html
Ethical Research
http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch3.html
Chapter 4
Studying Behavior
http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch4.html
Week 3
Chapter 5
Measurement Concepts
http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch5.html
Chapter 6
Observing Behavior
http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch6.html
Week 4
Chapter 7
Asking People About Themselves: Survey Research
http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch7.html
Chapter
8
Experimental Design: Purposes and Pitfalls
http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch8.html
Week 5
Chapter 9
Conducting Experiments
http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch9.html
Week 7
Chapter 10
Complex Experimental Designs http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch10.html
Chapter 11
Quasi-Experimental, Single Subject, and Developmental Research Designs
http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch11.html
Chapter 12
Understanding Research Results: Description and Correlation
http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch12.html
Chapter 13
Understanding Research Results: Statistical Inference
http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch13.html
Chapter 14
Generalizing Results
http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch14.html
| OVERVIEW |
|
WELCOME TO THIS COURSE!
We're glad you're here! This course should be practical, fun, and an opportunity
to study something specific, which you REALLY WANT TO STUDY!
You will gain knowledge, skills, and values about communication research. The course is designed to help you understand research and theory building in the field of communication studies. this course will be the first step in completing the senior project for Communication majors.
The plan is for this course to provide a foundation for your
more advanced learning in the theories and research of communication studies.
We're glad you're here!
COURSE DESCRIPTION
CA382: This course focuses on the most frequently used
communication research methods in the areas of journalism, communication
studies, and public relations. Students will be introduced to the qualitative
and quantitative communication research methods including content analysis,
participant observation, interviewing, textual analysis and experimental
research. It will emphasize understanding communication research reports and
developing research and writing skills appropriate for both communication
professionals and students seeking advanced degrees. The course may utilize
service learning.
3:0:3.
Prerequisite: None
Credit hours: 3
COURSE CONTENT SOURCE CREDITS
Text of lectures, overviews, tests, and similar materials are directly quoted
from the sources below or as cited and referenced.
REFERENCES
Ker linger, F. N., & Lee, H. B. (2000). Foundations of behavioral research. New
York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Nardi, P. M. (2003).
Doing survey research: A guide to quantitative research. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Neuendorf, K. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. You may want to buy this book if you plan to conduct a content analysis.
Sumser, J. (2001). A guide to empirical research in communication: Rules for
looking. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Some APA test questions are quoted directly from The University of Southern Mississippi Libraries APA Tutorial (URL: http://lib.usm.edu/legacy/tutorials/apatutorial/quiz.php?type=pre)
Clipart is from Microsoft or the sources as indicated. This
material is copyrighted. All rights reserved.
Copyright © Park University 2011. The material presented in this course is
owned by Park University. Unless it is specifically cited in this document or in
the Text and Resources pages, the course content is owned by Park University.
Some course content such as test questions, PowerPoint presentations, and
chapter outlines may be owned by the textbook publisher and are used in the
course with permission. If the content is used from other sources under the Fair
Use Clause of the Copyright Act or instructor content, the source of the work is
cited. You may not duplicate or use any of the course content outside of this
course.
| EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY |
 |
This course is designed for Communication majors and minors.
All students from any majors are welcome, and they are encouraged to talk
to their professor about how they would like to adapt this course to their
particular needs.
The emphasis in this course is on research strategies that will work well for
online students.
Additional
information is provided so that students in Parkville Daytime and Accelerated
programs will be able to access the materials they need for their senior
projects.
The assignments are designed to give you the skills you need to create a
research proposal.
Your proposal is
typically used for the senior project.
If you are not going to complete a senior project, you will find the
process of writing a proposal useful in corporate context, graduate school, and
grant-writing.
|
LEARNING OUTCOMES |
 |
LEARNING OBJECTIVES BY WEEK
WEEK 1
a.
Demonstrate your progress, if any, toward your senior project prior to this
course.
b.
Select an appropriate communication topic for the project.
c.
Demonstrate current research and writing skills.
d.
Identify characteristics of Science and Theory.
e.
Find Peer Reviewed Journal Articles (Scholarly Sources) in Ebscohost's
Communication and Mass Media Complete
WEEK 2
a.
Focus your work for the course (core assessment and senior project idea).
b.
Determine the direction of your core assessment project so you will design an
appropriate and do-able core assessment research proposal, which can lead to the
senior project.
c.
Write an appropriate research question for your research proposal.
d.
Write an abstract
e.
Conduct scholarly database research.
f.
Write an APA style reference list
WEEK 3
a.
Write a research question that meets typical scholarly expectations.
b.
Explain the research rationale for a project.
c.
Write an operational definition.
WEEK 4
a.
Practice using APA writing style
b.
Write a scholarly review of literature on a communication topic.
c.
Identify the basic principles of using content analysis as a research method.
WEEK 5
a.
Identify multiple research methods.
b.
Write a research method section for a project.
WEEK 6
a.
Write a complete research proposal using APA style.
WEEK 7
a.
Identify a procedure for using statistics in research.
WEEK 8
a.
Recognize basic research principles.
b.
Identify key ideas learned in the course.
CA 382 COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES
PROGRAM GOALS
Program Goals Addressed In This Course
|
|
 |
Academic Honesty explains the ethical expectations for
using your own words in all assignments.
Know that your professor may use plagiarism detection software, such as
Turnitin, on your papers in this course.
Grading Rubrics provides information on how assignments, discussions, quizzes, exams are graded.
Help and Resources provide University support links.
Introductions is where students introduce themselves to the class.
Office and contact Information gives you an array of important administrative
details about this course and a discussion board for talking with other
students.
Overview provides overall information on the course such as core learning outcomes and grading.
Prof Communication gives you a private dropbox and explains the ways you can
communicate with your professor.
Schedule gives you an overview of the tentative schedule and assignment due dates.
Syllabus should link to your professor's course information.
Textbook, Software, Skills and Resources give you information on textbooks, software, skills, and resources for this course.
Weblinks gives you important links you will need to use in the course.
Week 1, 2, etc. will be revealed each week to provide the content for the course, including the lecture, discussion, and quiz for each chapter.
|
WEBLINKS |
 |
APA Style Guide in the Purdue OWL
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/2/10/
Ethics Read Park University Website:
http://www.park.edu/grad/catalog.aspx
http://www.park.edu/facultymanual/
and
http://www.park.edu/support/ethics.asp
Hefner Research Methods (Assigned Course eBook)
http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/researchcontents.html
Hefner Success Orientation Quiz
http://allpsych.com/tests/self-help/success.html
Institutional Research Board (Park's IRB) webpage with forms:
http://park.edu/irb/
Lectures and tutorials about communication research
http://blogs.cofc.edu/fergusond/
NIH Certification (Needed for Institutional Research Board if you conduct
research on human subjects):
http://phrp.nihtraining.com/users/login.php
|
TEXTBOOKS |
 |
APA (2009). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. 6th
ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Heffner,
(2003). Research methods. All Psych Online.
http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/researchcontents.html
|
TECHNICAL PROBLEMS |
 |
LINKS CONSTANTLY MOVE
If an Internet link
doesn’t work, try copying and pasting the url into your browser outside
eCollege.
If the link has moved,
you can run an Internet search f for the same or a similar link on your own.
COURSE ERRORS
Your professor has no
ability to change or fix anything in the course.
Because of the process for making corrections and copying courses, course
corrections may take two terms to fix.
If you find a serious problem, please notify your professor, who can notify the
Course Designer and begin the correction process as quickly as possible.
eCOLLEGE COURSE
OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS
Your professor
cannot assist you with computer problems or operational problems in eCollege.
If you have
problems, try shutting down your computer, waiting 10 seconds, and restart. If
the problem is still there, please report it immediately.
If the links or
phone numbers below do not work, go to the Park webpage and look up the contact
information you need.
If the problem is
Park-related, contact the Information Technology Services Help Desk, Phone:
(816) 584-6768 or 1-800-927-3024, Email: helpdesk@mail.park.edu, Fax: (816)
505-5439
If the problem is
eCollege related, please contact eCollege.
Online
Classroom
Technical Support:
For technical assistance with the Online classroom, email
eCollegeHelpDesk@parkonline.org
or call the helpdesk at 866-301-PARK (7275). They will walk you through
any problems if you call and have your course open at the same time.
eCollege can also verify the problem to your professor.
To see the
technical requirements
for Online courses, please visit the
http://parkonline.org
website: click on the "Technical Requirements" link, and click on "BROWSER
Test" to see if your system is ready.
Park Helpdesk: If you have forgotten your User ID or Password, or if you need assistance with your PirateMail account, please email helpdesk@park.edu
or call 800-927-3024.
PROF COMMUNICATION
This dropbox is for private communication with your
professor.
DISCUSSING GRADES
Because of federal FERPA regulations, faculty are advised not to discuss grades or other private information by email or phone because they cannot be sure they are communicating only with the student. Your professor may want you to communicate through the eCollege Dropbox system.
| INTRODUCTIONS |
 |
HOW DO I ACCESS MY ONLINE COURSE?
If you are inside eCollege, obviously you are here. (grin) To get here, go to
http://parkonline.org/ You can look around during the week before the course
start date, but please understand that the course may not be completely ready
until the first day of the term (Monday).
WANT TO GET TO WORK?
Check your course syllabus for assignments and details about your course at
http://www.park.edu/syllabus/list.aspx. This information may also be linked
through the "Course Home," "Syllabus" link.
INTRODUCTIONS
Please introduce yourself below so everyone can get to know each other.
| OFFICE |
 |
GRADING SCALE
Typically, final grades are earned according to the following scale:
A = 900-1000
B = 800-899
C = 700-799
D = 600-699
F = 599 or below
EXAMPLE POINTS
Weekly discussion: 50 x 6 = 300
Weekly dropbox assignments 50 x 5 = 250
Core Assessment 250
Proposal Revision 50
PowerPoint 50
Final Exam 100
Total
1000 points = 100%
FACULTY RESPONSE
You should expect a response within 48 hours, so if you contact your professor and don't hear back, please contact your professor again. You may want to try a different means of contact for your second contact. If you telephoned, for example, your professor may not understand the return number message or may not have long-distance phone access. In that case, try again or send an email.
GRADES TURN AROUND TIME:
Discussions: Typically, by midnight Tuesday following the final due date Sunday. Weekly dropbox assignments: Typically, by midnight Tuesday--except longer assignments may take more time--following the final due date on Sunday. Core Assessment and Final Exam: within one week after the due date.
COURSE STRUCTURE
Students can see pages under Course Home two weeks prior to
the semester starts.
This class is an 8-week course. A class week is defined as the period of time
between Monday and Sunday. Every Monday, you will see a new weekly unit
available to you. The last day to work on the week unit is Sunday. The final
weekly deadline is Sunday at 11:59 PM, unless specified otherwise. You will
start to work on a new week unit each Monday.
The first week begins on the first day of the term and ends on Sunday.
WHERE DO I FIND IMPORTANT DEADLINES?
Many important deadlines for the course will be in your syllabus and the course schedule, under Course Home. In addition, you will want to be aware of the different Park University deadlines such as confirmation (payment for courses), adding or dropping a course, or withdrawing from a course. Please be sure to be aware of the academic calendar and if appropriate, review the policies and deadlines for adding, dropping, or withdrawing from a course. Remember, notices will be sent to your Park account only.
HOW DO I FIND POLICIES AND RESOURCES?
Reading through the catalog-- Undergraduate Catalog --that applies to you is very important. It lists the policies and procedures that you are expected to follow. Another great resource of information is the Student Resource page. This page provides great information that can be referred to for the duration of your degree.
CORE ASSESSMENT
Core Assessment for this course is a proposal for a senior project in
communication.
TIME ZONE
Central Time (regular or daylight savings), USA.
LATE SUBMISSION OF COURSE ASSIGNMENTS
The US is a monochronic culture, which means that the use of
time and deadlines is literal or firm. As someone studying communication,
you should understand the importance of the use of time as nonverbal
communication. Be on time as part of your communication competence.
In addition, be on time because learning in this course is designed to be
sequential and cumulative. Your active work throughout each week will be
critical to your learning and the health of this interactive learning community.
It is crucial that you engage with the class consistently each week of the term.
The online environment requires students to complete the work for each week
within the Monday to Sunday window. The weekly dropbox assignments must be
completed on time to receive credit. You will see that each weekly dropbox
assignment will become part of the final proposal (core assessment).
If you need to be late, make arrangements with your professor in advance of the due date. Please submit in the Dropbox (prior to the due) a physician's excuse or comparable documentation.
Typically, the maximum extension is one week from the due date.
If you need special accommodations, contact Debra McArthur, Director of Academic Services, Debra.McArthur@Park.edu.
The Core Assessment Research Proposal will not be accepted after Sunday, week 6.
ACADEMIC HONESTY
Please see the APA and course expectations under "Academic Honesty" under
"Course Home." Also refer to the Park University Undergraduate Catalog.
PLAGIARISM
Plagiarism involves the use of quotations without quotation marks, the use of
quotations without indication of the source, the use of another's idea without
acknowledging the source, the submission of a paper, laboratory report, project,
or class assignment (any portion of such) prepared by another person, or
incorrect paraphrasing. Please refer to Park University Undergraduate Catalog.
ATTENDANCE POLICY
Instructors are required to maintain attendance records and to report absences
via the online attendance reporting system. Please refer to Park University
Undergraduate Catalog.
The instructor may excuse absences for valid reasons, but missed work must be
made up within the semester/term of enrollment. Work missed through unexcused
absences must also be made up within the semester/term of enrollment, but
unexcused absences may carry further penalties. In the event of two consecutive
weeks of unexcused absences in a semester/term of enrollment, the student will
be administratively withdrawn, resulting in a grade of "W". A "Contract for
Incomplete" will not be issued to a student who has unexcused or excessive
absences recorded for a course. Students receiving Military Tuition Assistance
or Veterans Administration educational benefits must not exceed three unexcused
absences in the semester/term of enrollment. Excessive absences will be reported
to the appropriate agency and may result in a monetary penalty to the student.
Report of a "F" grade (attendance or academic) resulting from excessive absence
for those students who are receiving financial assistance from agencies not
mentioned in item 5 above will be reported to the appropriate agency. Disability
Guidelines:
Park University is committed to meeting the needs of all students that meet the
criteria for special assistance. These guidelines are designed to supply
directions to students concerning the information necessary to accomplish this
goal. It is Park University's policy to comply fully with federal and state law,
including Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with
Disabilities Act of 1990, regarding students with disabilities. In the case of
any inconsistency between these guidelines and federal and/or state law, the
provisions of the law will apply. Additional information concerning Park
University's policies and procedures related to disability can be found on the
Park University web page:
http://www.park.edu/disability.
INCOMPLETE POLICY NOTE:
Please refer to Park University Undergraduate Catalog. Verification of the
problem is required.
PARK UNIVERSITY VISION STATEMENT
Park University will be a renowned international leader in providing innovative
educational opportunities for learners within the global society.
MISSION STATEMENT
The mission of Park University, an entrepreneurial institution of learning, is
to provide access to academic excellence which will prepare learners to think
critically, communicate effectively and engage in lifelong learning while
serving a global community.
COURSE DEVELOPER
The course developer for this course is Dr. J. Aitken, Professor, Communication
Arts, on the Parkville campus. She taught at the University of Missouri
before coming the Park in 2005, has published 7 books and dozens of research
articles.
FACULTY CONTACT AND BIOGRAPHY
If you use the external email system, please use your @park.edu email address to send your message and give an informative subject line. Park’s email security system screens out most nonPark email as spam, so your professor may never receive emails from an external address. You will see an email function tab at the top of your eCollege course screen.
To find staff contact information at Park: http://people.park.edu/Public/Default.aspx?TabKey=0&TaskItemKey=2&Screen=0
8700 NW River Park Drive, Park University, Parkville, MO 64152
Your course professor will give completed contact information and a biography in the discussion board below.
COURSE DEVELOPER NOTES
Thank you for teaching this course! The Department of Arts and Communication appreciates your contributions to our department and student learning.
We hope you will find this course flexible and easy to use. If you notice problems or errors that need correction, please contact the course designer to implement the changes: Christina.Chang@park.edu
If you have suggestions for additional materials for the course, please contact Joan.Aitken@park.edu
DISCUSSION AND COMMUNICATION
IMPORTANCE OF ONLINE DISCUSSION AND ONLINE ETIQUETTE (NETIQUETTE)
This course requires frequent and active engagement in online discussion. Some tips for posting online include the following.
1. Keep posts short, but provide substance. Encouraging responses--"great post," "interesting comment,"--are always welcome, but do not satisfy the discussion thread assignment.
2. Keep confidences and do not use the real names of people, companies, or organizations.
3. Remember to login and post multiple times per week (e.g., Wednesday, Friday, and Sunday) and respond to others so that you are actively engaged in a conversation, and not making isolated posts. Due days are a guideline, but Sunday is the final deadline.
4. Avoid sarcasm and humor or indicate clearly (e.g., "Ha, ha," "grin," smiley face).
5. Avoid plagiarism in online discussion and use formal writing style.
6. As you read the course materials, find facts (research-based concepts), which you can apply to your own experiences to use in the discussion.
7. Seek to expand your thinking and experience about communication theories.
8. Seek to be open and nonjudgmental about the ideas of others by using rhetorical sensitivity and effective communication. Use empathy, diplomacy, and rhetorical sensitivity. Express your thoughts in a candid way so that you can be motivated to test yourself and improve your communication.
9. Keep confidences and do not use real names of individuals, companies, or organizations.
10. Use the Discussion Board to apply what you learn in the textbook, lectures, research articles, and other course readings.
ACADEMIC HONESTY
BE HONEST AND ETHICAL
What is ethical student behavior?
US society values private ownership, including ownership of ideas. Cite and reference all sources of information and ideas according to APA style. Academic integrity is crucial to this course, including the research paper. You will see basic expectations in your Park University catalog and in your APA manual.
USE YOUR OWN WORDS in everything you write or present in this course.
EVERY ASSIGNMENT NEEDS TO BE ORIGINAL WORK PREPARED BY THE STUDENT ONLY FOR THIS COURSE.
BE RESPONSIBLE. When conducting research and preparing assignments, take precise, correct, and careful notes. Use your own words by paraphrasing, but remember to record a reference listing of the source you will use. Any notes where you copy the words of others need to be indicated by quotation marks and referenced so you remember the source. If you are unsure, go back and look it up.
What is unethical student behavior?
Plagiarism in this course is failure to use APA style by crediting the source of ideas or information.
Some examples of plagiarism include the following:
1. Using words from a journal article without using quotation marks.
2. Using a review of literature information from a journal article without indicating that you are citing the secondary source. You should look it up in the original source--primary source--if you plan to use the information.
3. Failing to use quotation marks when providing a direct quotation.
4. Failing to cite and reference the source of paraphrased ideas.
5. Using part or all of an assignment turned in previously in another course.
6. Using part or all of an assignment written by another student or someone else. 7. Coping cited text without using quotation marks for the real author's words.
Academic dishonesty includes unethical behavior, such as falsification of data.
Some examples of unethical research or writing include the following:
1. Quoting more than 200 words from a single source, even when using quotation marks, a citation, and reference listing.
2. Quoting an author's abstract or other published words in a review of literature.
Under Park University policy, academic dishonesty can result in a failing grade for the assignment or course, or expulsion. Previously in some communication courses, students have earned an "F" for assignments that appear to be plagiarized or an "F" in the course when a major course assignment (core assessment assignment) section appears to be plagiarized.
BE
WARNED! Faculty may use plagiarism
detection software to determine whether the content can be found through the
Internet, published sources, or in an assignment submitted by another student at
another university. To learn more about how Turnitin works, for example,
see
http://turnitin.com/static/index.php
Any student who duplicates content--as identified by Turnitin software, for example--without direct quotation marks and proper citation should expect a course grade of "F."
The Style Manual for Organizational Communication Majors:
APA (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
READ and KNOW American Psychological Association (APA) Ethical Requirements for this program:
Expectations of ethical behaviors pp. 11-20.
Compliance checklist p. 20.
Complying With Ethical, Legal, and Policy Requirements, p. 231-236.
Crediting Sources pp. 169-174.
Self-plagiarism, pp. 16, 29, 170.
Final Exam Study Guide (WEEK 7)
Read through the course glossary. Below are practice tests by topic.
Science http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch1.html
Theory http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch2.html
Protecting Subjects http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch3.html
Reliability & Measure http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch5.html
Operational Definitions and Relationships http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch4.html
Statistics and Interpretation of Results http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch12.html and http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch13.html
Validity and Generalizing Results http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch14.html
Methods
Observation http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch6.html
Survey http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch7.html
Experimental Design http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch8.html and http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch9.html and http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch10.html and http://methods.fullerton.edu/quiz_ch11.html
TEXTBOOK, SOFTWARE, SKILLS AND RESOURCES
TEXTBOOK
Heffner, (2003). Research methods. All Psych Online. Contents
http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/researchcontents.html
We are using an e-book for the main text in this course. There is no hardcopy required textbook for the course, but there are required online readings. If you prefer using a conventional hardcopy format, you will find that the basic content of conducting social science research is consistent across disciplines (e.g., communication, psychology, sociology, education). You can check out a basic research textbook from your local library and use that during this course. The words may be different, but the principles, concepts, and explanations will be the same.
COURSE
STYLE MANUAL
You will need to buy or have library access to
APA (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
The APA style manual is available at MBS Bookstore .
ONLINE
TEXTBOOK OPTIONS
There are many
excellent options so you can read about the method of research you want to use.
Additional online books about research, which you may help you in this course.
REQUIRED
SOFTWARE
Adobe Reader (PDFs):
Click here to download Adobe Reader for free at https://captain.park.edu/cd/oshr/Pages_TechnicalHelp/reader.aspx
Microsoft Office Word or Microsoft Word viewer is free:
Click here to download Microsoft Office word viewer for free at
http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/details.aspx?FamilyID=3657ce88-7cfa-457a-9aec-f4f827f20cac&displaylang=en
REQUIRED
KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS
Knowledge of the most recent American Psychological Association (APA) style.
Skills to compose word documents in doc files (Microsoft Office Word 1997-2007 format) or rtf file (Rich text format if you do not have Microsoft Office Word)
Skills to browse contents in eCollege and use eCollege tools such as discussion, Doc Sharing, Dropbox, and gradebook.
Skills to copy and paste.
Skills to use a Park University online database (Ebsco Host's Communication and Mass Media Complete) to write an academic research proposal.
RESOURCES
Webliography (WEBLINKS)
The Weblinks in this course include assigned readings, tutorials, and
supplements. Internet links constantly change, so we cannot be responsible for
links that don't work. If links move or don't work, you can use a search engine
to find the site or something comparable. In many cases, if you will copy the
link and paste it in your Internet browser, it will work. Operation should be
more effective if you right click the link so you operate the link outside
of the eCollege system.
CA 382 Syllabus (URL: http://www.park.edu/syllabus/list.aspx)
Ebsco Communication and Mass Media Complete
Database (URL: https://pegleg.park.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.asp)
You will find sources for your written assignments here.
Library Database Tutorial (URL:
http://ourwayit.com/LibraryTutorial/)
Protecting Human Subjects (NIH Certification) (URL: http://phrp.nihtraining.com/users/login.php)
Purdue's Guide to American Psychological Association (APA)
Citation and Reference Style Formatting (URL:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/)
|
WEEK 1 DISCUSSION Gather round the campfire! |
 |
1. Progress Report (due Wednesday)
What is your plan for this week regarding
your communication research proposal? Any questions for your professor?
2. Ethics Question (due Friday)
Pat has to conduct a content analysis as original research for a paper on the topic: "Communication Technology for the Gifted Child." Pat has to create a reference list for the CA382 review of literature, which is due tomorrow. Pat is tired, feels worn out, and is looking for shortcuts. Pat thinks for a few minutes and realizes there are at least the following options.
Search Ebsco Host Communication and Mass Media Complete database for possible sources for the reference list.
Copy the abstracts from any articles that look relevant.
Find a research article similar to the topic and copy the reference list from that article.
Submit a bibliography on a similar topic from another course.
Find relevant articles, and just read the abstract, introduction, and discussion section of each article.
QUESTION FOR DISCUSSION
What should Pat do?
3. Sample Study (option for Sunday)
Comments on this week's example?
4. Research Can Be Fun (option for Sunday)
|
Watch the video. If the links don't work, find one of your own. What is the research question for the experiment? What are the independent and dependent variables? Week 3: Mythbusters Ask A Ninja |
|
5. Response to Readings (option for Sunday)
Tell us about something you learned from the course lecture, reading, a weblink, or video for this week.
6. Response to Database Research (option for Sunday)
Give a summary in your own words of a scholarly journal article you found for your research proposal.
|
WEEK 2 DISCUSSION Talk about it! |
 |
1. Progress Report (due Wednesday)
What is your plan for this week regarding
2. Ethics Question (due Friday)
Teri is working on the review of literature for CA 382. Teri has several good sources. Instead of writing the information in Teri's own words, Teri copies the words of the various authors, although Teri is careful to cite the sources and include each in the reference list.
Plagiarism detection software showed that more than 15% of the student's paper was plagiarized, so Teri earned a zero on the assignment. How can a student to make sure there is no plagiarism in an assignment?
3. Sample Study (option for Sunday)
Read and discuss the example study for this week.
4. Research Can Be Fun (option for Sunday)
|
Watch the video. If the links don't work, find one of your own. What is the research question for the experiment? What are the independent and dependent variables? Here is an example about surfing with dynamite. Mythbusters - click here. Research question: Can dynamite produce a surf-able wave? Independent (cause) or X variable is the explosion. Dependent (effect) or Y variable is the wave. Or search the Internet for another Mythbusters experiment. |
|
5. Response to Readings (option for Sunday)
Tell us about something you learned from the course lecture, reading, a weblink, or video for this week.
6. Response to Database Research (option for Sunday)
Give a summary in your own words of a scholarly journal article you found for your research proposal.
|
WEEK 3 DISCUSSION Take a break from the climb! |
 |
1. Progress Report (due Wednesday)
What is your plan for this week regarding
2. Ethics Question (due Friday)
Sammy spent too much time procrastinating on the CA 382 core assessment and not enough time finding, reading, and writing about scholarly research relevant to the topic. So, Sammy went online and found a bunch of information from websites and used that as the core of the paper's content, then found a dozen scholarly articles and gave a brief citation from each in the paper. When the professor used plagiarism detection software, it showed that Sammy had copied various websites without citing or referencing the content. In addition, two of the websites were ones that provide free essays on various topics, which Sammy used as content for the core assessment. Sammy earned an "F" in the course and the professor reported the student to the Vice President so that the incident would be the student's permanent record.
What do you think of students who try to pass on stolen work as their own or ones who buy assignments from an online "service?" Do you think the student should have been expelled from the university.
3. Sample Study (option for Sunday)
Read and discuss the example study for this week.
4. Research Can Be Fun (option for Sunday)
Learning Connection:
How can you make this demonstration a scientific experiment? “The scientific method attempts to explain the natural occurrences (phenomena) of the universe by using a logical, consistent, systematic method of investigation, information (data) collection, data analysis (hypothesis), testing (experiment), and refinement to arrive at a well-tested, well-documented, explanation that is well-supported by evidence, called a theory.”
Warning: I do this outdoors. You might want to use a poncho or wear old clothes and shoes.
Instructions: Open the Mentos and take the cap off the 2-liters Diet Coke. As past as you can, push the Mentos in the Diet Coke.
|
Watch the video. If the links don't work, find one of your own. What is the research question for the experiment? What are the independent and dependent variables? |
|
5. Response to Readings (option for Sunday)
Tell us about something you learned from the course lecture, reading, a weblink, or video for this week.
6. Response to Database Research (option for Sunday)
Give a summary in your own words of a scholarly journal article you found for your research proposal.
|
WEEK 4 DISCUSSION Gather round the campfire! |
 |
1. Progress Report (due Wednesday)
What is your plan for this week regarding
2. Ethics Question (due Friday)
|
Part A. Leslie finds a measure that is perfect for the proposed study. The measure is validated, has high reported reliability, and has a copyright. Although there's supposed to be a charge for each person who uses the measure, none of the faculty have asked about that part. Leslie runs off copies and considers handing them out to the participants. Part B. When Leslie runs the pre and post test data, Leslie discovers that there was no significant difference. By fudging a little on the results, Leslie can show a significant difference and probably be able to publish the study's results. QUESTION FOR DISCUSSION What choices does Leslie have? What are the possible consequences of Leslie's decision? 3. Sample Study (option for Sunday) Read and discuss the example study for this week. 4. Research Can Be Fun (option for Sunday)
\
5. Response to Readings (option for Sunday) Tell us about something you learned from the course lecture, reading, a weblink, or video for this week. 6. Response to Database Research (option for Sunday) Give a summary in your own words of a scholarly journal article you found for your research proposal. |
|
WEEK 5 DISCUSSION
Now you're cooking!
1. Progress Report (due Wednesday)
What is your plan for this week regarding
2. Ethics Question (due Friday)
Sam has a the study's proposal, method, and forms all approved by the IRB. When Sam begins working with subjects, some slight changes are needed to make the procedures work right. Sam doesn't want to start over and obtain the IRB approval on everything.
QUESTION FOR DISCUSSION
What choices does Sam have?
What are the possible consequences of Sam's decision?
3. Sample Study (option for Sunday)
Read and discuss the example study for this week.
4. Research Can Be Fun (option for Sunday)
Learning Connection:
How can you make this demonstration a scientific experiment? “The scientific method attempts to explain the natural occurrences (phenomena) of the universe by using a logical, consistent, systematic method of investigation, information (data) collection, data analysis (hypothesis), testing (experiment), and refinement to arrive at a well-tested, well-documented, explanation that is well-supported by evidence, called a theory.”
From Robert Krampf's
Experiment of the Week: - #482 Burning Steel
To try this, you will need:
steel wool
pliers
matches or a lighter
a bowl of water
Before you read further or do the experiment, do you think the steel wool will burn? If you think yes, how long will it burn? Will it burn twice? What will be left if it burns? *WARNING* This experiment involves the use of fire. Burning steel is VERY hot, and can easily set fire to other materials. BE SAFE. You may want to do this over a sink with water. I've had colleagues complain about the smell, so you may want to try this outdoors.
Procedures
Light the steel wool.
Stop here until after the experiment------------------
The steel burns, giving off quite a bit of heat in the process, but it does
not burn for long. Notice that the steel does not burn up. The strand that
is left behind does not look like rust, but it is now made up of iron oxide.
Understanding the Science
How can steel burn? Well, usually it doesn't. To understand why the steel wool
burns, think about starting a campfire. What would happen if you held a match
under a large log? Would that set the log on fire? No. The match does not give
off enough heat energy to get the wood hot enough to burn. But, what would
happen if you held the match under a small twig? The smaller piece of wood
catches fire easily.
The same idea applies to the steel wool, but there is more than just heat at
work. Even with a tremendous amount of heat, steel usually does not burn.
The other difference is the
amount of oxygen available. In a large piece of steel, only the surface is in
contact with oxygen. Most of the steel in inside, where the oxygen cannot reach.
With the thin strand of steel wool, all the steel is near the surface, and near
the oxygen. That availability of oxygen allows the steel to burn.
So we see that when steel combines with oxygen, either slowly or quickly, it
always gives off energy in the form of heat. Even more interesting is that if we
measure the energy given off by both rusting and combustion, we will see that we
get the same amount of energy from each. The speed of the reaction is different,
but the total amount of energy is the same.
You may also find it interesting that after the steel burns, it weighs more that
it did originally. When wood, paper, etc. burn, much of their carbon combines
with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, which mixes with the air. For those
substances, the remains after burning will weigh quite a bit less than the
original material. With iron or steel, all the original material stays, as well
as the oxygen that it bonded with. The fact that metals gain weight when they
burn played an important role in the discovery of oxygen's role in the burning
process.
5. Response to Readings (option for Sunday)
Tell us about something you learned from the course lecture, reading, a weblink, or video for this week.
6. Response to Database Research (option for Sunday)
Give a summary in your own words of a scholarly journal article you found for your research proposal.
|
WEEK 6 NO REQUIRED
DISCUSSION |
 |
1. Extra Credit Ethical Dilemma (Due Friday)
Jay's supervisor said that because Jay has experience in proposal writing, Jay
will be in change of preparing this year's annual departmental proposed goals
and budget report. Jay sees some similarities to writing a proposal for CA
382, but is worried about the report on top of other assigned tasks.
A coworker says: "Just take last year's report, change a couple things, and turn it in."
What are more effective strategies Jay can use in writing a high quality, ethical report and budget.
|
WEEK 7 DISCUSSION Congratulations! You made it to the top of the mountain! |
 |
1. Progress Report (due Wednesday)
What is your plan for this week regarding
2. Ethics Question (due Friday)
Ethical Question (Due Wednesday)
Lynn prepares a detailed protocol for a senior project in communication. The study and protocols are approved by Park University's Institutional Review Board. When Lynn asks people to sign the consent forms, two of the first three refuse to sign and Lynn decides that if no one is asked to sign the form, no one will refuse. Lynn knows that no one will ask to see the forms, and if they do, Lynn can use different pens and handwriting to fill them out.
QUESTION FOR DISCUSSION
What choices does Lynn have?
What are the possible consequences of Lynn' decision?
3. Research Can Be Fun (option for Sunday)
Organizational Communication in the
Media
Photo source: popculturevortex.blogspot.com
Watch a television program or film relevant to organizational communication (e.g., Apprentice, Shark Tank, Undercover Boss). Describe a way you could design a study to test an idea presented in the show.
4. Response to Readings (option for Sunday)
Tell us about something you learned from the course lecture, reading, a weblink, or video for this week.
5. Response to Database Research (option for Sunday)
Give a summary in your own words of a scholarly journal article you found for your research proposal.
|
WEEK 8 DISCUSSION Heading home. . . |
 |
1. Ethics Question (due Wednesday)
At the office, Lynn's coworker started gossiping about another coworker. What should Lynn do?
2. Closure (due Friday)
Any final thoughts about what you learned in this course?
|
Week 1 Reading and Assignments
|
 |
Course Learning Outcome (CLO) 3
Develop a research proposal appropriate to their major.
CLO 10 Evaluate how service learning has affected their understanding of
communication, communication research, and their community.
Weekly Learning Objectives:
a.
to demonstrate your progress, if any, toward your senior project prior to this
course.
b.
to select an appropriate communication topic for the project.
c.
to demonstrate current research and writing skills.
d.
to identify characteristics of Science and Theory.
e.
to find Peer Reviewed Journal Articles (Scholarly Sources) in Ebscohost's
Communication and Mass Media Complete
ASSIGNMENTS
Read
·
APA Style Manual, particularly Chapter 1 and 2.
Discussion
Dropbox Assignment: Previous paper
from another course.
|
Week 2 Reading and Assignments
|
 |
Course Learning Outcome (CLO) 1 Evaluate the ethical issues involved in a
research proposal.
Weekly Learning Objectives:
a.
to focus your work for the course (core assessment and senior project idea).
b.
to determine the direction of your core assessment project so you will design an
appropriate and do-able core assessment research proposal, which can lead to the
senior project.
c.
to write an appropriate research question for your research proposal.
d.
to write an abstract
e.
to conduct scholarly database research.
f.
to write an APA style reference list
ASSIGNMENT
Reading:
·
Heffner Chapter 1 Introduction to Research http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/introduction.html
·
Heffner Chapter 2 The Research Report http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/theresearchreport.html
·
Heffner Chapter 10 Critical Analysis http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/criticalanalysis.html
·
Read About Content Analysis:
http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/content.html
and for more information
http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/research/content/
Discussion
Dropbox Assignment: Abstract Draft
ADDITIONAL CONTENT ANALYSIS READING You will probably use content analysis in your research. This method allows you to analyze communication texts, such as websites, speeches, a film script, or an organization's annual report, You'll need to read an scholarly journal article that uses content analysis and some explanation of the method. There are many good sources of information about content analysis on the Internet:
Content Analysis (Colorado State University) http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/research/content/
Content Analysis (U Texas) http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/content.html
Content Analysis (PAREonline.net) http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=17
The Qualitative Methods Workbook, by David W. Stockburger
Study this visual from
http://academic.csuohio.edu/kneuendorf/content/resources/flowc.htm
|
Week 3 Reading and Assignments
|
 |
Course Learning Outcome (CLO) 5
Write effective research questions/hypotheses.
Weekly Learning Objectives:
a.
To write a research question that meets typical scholarly expectations.
b.
To explain the research rationale for a project.
c.
To write an operational definition.
ASSIGNMENTS
Read
·
Heffner Chapter 3 Research Tools of the Trade http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/researchtools.html
Discussion
Dropbox Assignment: Introduction
Draft
|
Week 4 Reading and Assignments
|
 |
Course Learning Outcome (CLO) 12
Demonstrates library research ability.
CLO 11 Effectively uses APA style.
Weekly Learning Objectives:
a.
Practice using APA writing style
b.
Write a scholarly review of literature on a communication topic.
c.
Identify the basic principles of using content analysis as a research method.
ASSIGNMENTS
Read
·
Content Analysis Guidebook http://academic.csuohio.edu/kneuendorf/content/
Discussion
Dropbox Assignment: Review of
Literature Draft
|
Week 5 Reading and Assignments
|
 |
Course Learning Outcome (CLO) 8
Evaluate communication research in terms of validity and reliability.
CLO 6 Select the method best suited to research methods/goals.
Weekly Learning Objectives:
a.
Identify multiple research methods.
b.
Write a research method section for a project.
ASSIGNMENTS
Read
·
Heffner Chapter 4 Single Subject Design http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/singlesubjectdesign.html
·
Heffner Chapter 5 Experimental Design http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/experimentaldesign.html
·
Heffner Chapter 6 Other Research Designs http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/otherresearchdesigns.html
Discussion
Dropbox Assignment: Method Draft
for your proposal
|
Week 6 Reading and Assignments
|
 |
Course Learning Outcome (CLO) 12 Demonstrates library research ability.
CLO 11 Effectively uses APA style.
CLO 7 Write an effective research report in formats appropriate to their major.
Weekly Learning Objectives:
a.
Write a complete research proposal using APA style.
ASSIGNMENT
No new readings so you can focus on finalizing your proposal.
Dropbox Assignment: Final Proposal
|
Week 7 Reading and Assignments
|
 |
Course Learning Outcome (CLO) 4
Collect, analyze, and interpret data using multiple methods.
Weekly Learning Objectives:
·
Identify a procedure for using statistics in research.
ASSIGNMENTS
Read
·
Heffner Chapter 7 Variables, Validity, and Reliability http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/variablesvalidityreliability.html
·
Heffner Chapter 8 Descriptive Statistics http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/descriptivestatistics.html
·
Heffner Chapter 9 Inferential Statistics http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/inferentialstatistics.html
Due as Discussion Attachment:
PowerPoint Presentation
|
Week 8 Reading and Assignments Heading home!
|
 |
Course Learning Outcome (CLO) 2 Compare and contrast qualitative and
quantitative research questions, methods, and reports.
CLO 9 Apply appropriate statistical tests to specific communication research
questions.
Weekly Learning Objectives:
a.
Recognize basic research principles.
b.
Identify key ideas learned in the course.
ASSIGNMENTS
No new readings so you can focus on proctored the final exam.
Final Exam
|
|
| Week 1 Video |
 |
Choosing a topic
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VOtYf42Zcjo
| Week 2 Video |
 |
Using Your Own Words—Paraphrasing:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u1t0G7ZnRG8
Summarizing
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=64o8z2gxf3A
Budget Your Time for Research
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mkQoO33TPvs
| Week 3 Video |
|
Using
Microsoft Office Word for
Formatting a Research Paper in APA Style
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=reFXrhdvnmw
Communication and Mass Media Complete Tutorial
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iYp1CkXMRKE
Sample Research Proposal
http://clem.mscd.edu/~randellc/RM1%20Sample%20Research%20Proposal.pdf
| Week 4 Video |
 |
Communication and Mass Media Complete Search Tutorials
http://www.twu.ca/library/Flash_Tutorials/comm_basic_demo/comm_basic_demo.htm
APA References
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOEmM5gmTJM&playnext=1&list=PL7B1C53FCE1D433DC
Literature Review
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2IUZWZX4OGI
Literature Review Step 2
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UoYpyY9n9YQ
| Week 5 Video |
 |
Writing the APA Methods Section
http://vimeo.com/10638464
| Week 6 Video |
 |
Video APA Formatting Citations
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9pbUoNa5tyY
| Week 7 Video |
 |
PowerPoint 2007 Tutorial - PeakDavid
| Week 8 Video |
 |
Just for fun--Cruise Alaska http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=92QgMM2B5Ek&feature=related
Alaska's Glaciers http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QICw51ZwyGs&feature=relmfu
| TENTATIVE SCHEDULE |
 |
|
Course Learning Outcomes (CLO) |
Weekly Objectives |
Learning Topics |
Heffner & Other
Reading |
Written Assignments |
|
Wk 1 |
a.
to demonstrate your progress, if any, toward
your senior project prior to this course.
b.
to select an appropriate communication topic for
the project.
c.
to demonstrate current research and writing
skills.
d.
to identify characteristics of Science and
Theory.
e.
to find Peer Reviewed Journal Articles
(Scholarly Sources) in Ebscohost's Communication
and Mass Media Complete
|
Science Theory Peer Reviewed Journal Articles (Scholarly Sources) Ebscohost's Communication and Mass Media Complete |
Read APA Style Manual, particularly Chapter 1 and 2. |
Discussion
Dropbox Assignment:
Previous Paper |
|
Wk 2 CLO 1
Evaluate the ethical issues involved in a
research proposal. |
a.
to focus your work for the course (core
assessment and senior project idea).
b.
to determine the direction of your core
assessment project so you will design an
appropriate and do-able core assessment research
proposal, which can lead to the senior project.
c.
to write an appropriate research question for
your research proposal.
d.
to write an abstract
e.
to conduct scholarly database research.
f.
to write an APA style reference list |
Abstract Scholarly Database Research Reference List |
Week 2 Heffner Chapter 1 Introduction to Research http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/introduction.html Heffner Chapter 2 The Research Report http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/theresearchreport.html
Heffner Chapter 10 Critical Analysis http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/criticalanalysis.html
|
Discussion
Dropbox Assignment: Abstract Draft |
|
Wk 3 |
a.
To write a research question that meets typical
scholarly expectations.
b.
To explain the research rationale for a project.
c.
To write an operational definition. |
Research Question Research Rationale Operational Definitions |
Heffner Chapter 3 Research Tools of the Trade http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/researchtools.html |
Discussion
Dropbox Assignment:
Introduction Draft |
|
Wk 4 |
a.
Practice using APA writing style
b.
Write a scholarly review of literature on a
communication topic.
c.
Identify the basic principles of using content
analysis as a research method. |
APA Style Review of Literature |
Content Analysis Guidebook http://academic.csuohio.edu/kneuendorf/content/ |
Discussion
Dropbox Assignment:
Review of Literature Draft |
|
Wk 5 CLO 6
Select the method best suited to research
methods/goals. |
a.
Identify multiple research methods.
b.
Write a research method section for a project. |
Methods |
Heffner Chapter 4 Single Subject Design http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/singlesubjectdesign.html
Heffner Chapter 5 Experimental Design http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/experimentaldesign.html Heffner Chapter 6 Other Research Designs http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/otherresearchdesigns.html |
Discussion
Dropbox Assignment:
Method Draft |
|
Wk 6 |
a.
Write a complete research proposal using APA
style. |
Research Proposal |
|
Dropbox Assignment: Final Proposal |
|
Wk 7 |
·
Identify a procedure for using statistics in
research.
|
Statistics |
Heffner Chapter 7 Variables, Validity, and Reliability http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/variablesvalidityreliability.html
Heffner Chapter 8 Descriptive Statistics http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/descriptivestatistics.html Heffner Chapter 9 Inferential Statistics http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/inferentialstatistics.html
|
PowerPoint Presentation |
|
Wk 8 |
a.
Recognize basic research principles.
b.
Identify key ideas learned in the course. |
Ready for the Next Step |
No new readings so you can focus on proctored the final exam. |
Final Exam |
|
GRADING RUBRICS AND
ASSIGNMENTS |
 |
Table of Contents
Core Assessment
Example Grading Rubric
100%
Demonstrate learning, self analysis, and skill improvement:
Example points: 50
90%
70%
35 points
The evaluation of your answer will be based on whether you answered all parts of the question correctly, including your explanation or justification as required.
WEEK 1
CA 348 Core Assessment
(Dropbox) due week 1:
Paper from CA
348 or another course.
Learning Objectives:
(a.) to demonstrate your progress, if any, toward your senior project prior to
this course.
(b.) to select an appropriate communication topic for the project.
(c.) to demonstrate current research and writing skills.
Instructions:
Submit the core
assessment research paper you completed for CA 348.
In this course you will continue on the same topic as you complete the
full research paper for your senior project.
If you have not completed CA 348, simply submit an example research or other
major paper you have completed in another course.
50 POINTS--Grading:
There is no
professor evaluation of your work from a previous course, so you simply receive
credit for submitting your work or no credit for failing to submit your work by
the Sunday deadline.
WEEK 2 CA 348 Core Assessment (Dropbox) due week 2, Sunday 11:59 PM: ABSTRACT
Learning Objectives
(a.) to focus your work for the course (core assessment and senior project
idea).
(b.)
to determine the direction of
your core assessment project so you will design an appropriate and do-able core
assessment research proposal, which can lead to the senior project.
(c.) to write an appropriate research question for your research proposal.
Assignment:
As a communication
major, you will need to conduct a senior project.
At this stage, write a brief abstract for your core assessment for this
course, which can lead to an appropriate and do-able senior project.
An abstract is a summary of your proposed research study.
You can complete the following sentences:
The purpose of this study will be
This study is important because
The research question is
The method of research will be
An example abstract might look like the following:
Grading criteria
1.
Brief length (approximately 50 words)
2.
Purpose of the study makes sense.
3.
Correct formal writing style used, with no personal pronouns (e.g., I, my) and
no contractions (e.g., don’t).
4.
Importance of study indicated.
5.
Topic is clearly relevant to communication.
50 POINTS--Grading:
The assignment
may be pass/fail or the student may receive 10 points for each element contained
in the abstract. Because you are at the beginning stage of this process, this
abstract does not need to be exact or perfect.
Your professor will give you any feedback about needed changes so you can
clearly focus your research proposal for the course (core assessment).
WEEK 3 CA 348 Core Assessment Draft (Dropbox) due
week 3, Sunday 11:59 PM:
INTRODUCTION
Learning Objectives:
(a.) to explain the importance of a research study.
(b.) to connect scholarly research with a communication topic for study.
(c.) to write a research question to guide a study, which is
clear, focused, about communication, and open-ended.
Instructions:
50 POINTS--Grading:
WEEK 4 CA 348 Core Assessment Draft (Dropbox) due
week 4, Sunday 11:59 PM:
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Learning Objectives:
Instructions:
50 POINTS--Grading:
WEEK 5 CA 348 Core Assessment Draft (Dropbox) due week 5, Sunday 11:59 PM: METHOD
Learning Objectives:
(a.) to apply a content analysis method to answer the
research question, or select the method best suited to research goal.
Instructions:
WEEK 6 CA 348 Core Assessment (Dropbox) due week 6,
Sunday 11:59 PM:
FINAL
RESEARCH PROPOSAL (CORE ASSESSMENT)
Learning Objectives:
Instructions:
250 POINTS--Grading:
This
assignment is a long and an important one, so please do not expect a grade and
feedback in less than a week.
Your professor may use the rubric approved by the department or a more detailed
rubric such as the one below.
WEEK 7 CA 348 Core Assessment Draft (Dropbox) due week 6, PLEASE SUBMIT BY FRIDAY: POWERPOINT PRESENTATION
Learning Objectives:
(a.) to clearly summarize a proposed communication study.
(b.) to provide an effective oral presentation.
(c). to demonstrate effective use of PowerPoint with narration.
Instructions:
50 POINTS--Grading:
WEEK 8 REVISION
Learning Objectives:
Instructions:
NO POINTS--Grading:
Your professor
may give you an option to revise your core assessment based on his or her
feedback.
If your professor gives
you this option, your professor will decide the additional extra credit points
you may earn with your revision.
Many students learn well by
analogies, so the course is designed to compare
research to the exploration you might do if you
climb a mountain. We do not expect all our
students to start from the same place. We'll
take a somewhat unique approach because students
come from various backgrounds and a wide array
of preparation--or lack of preparation--for this
course. We will focus on mastery of content as
applied to the individual student objectives for
a research project proposal. Some of you may feel tired at
just the thought of learning about communication
research and not feel ready to explore.
Some of you have arrived at
base camp, but are still looking for a cup of
coffee to help you get started.
Some of you are in shape from
your prior coursework and experiences, so you
are well prepared and ready to set out on the
trek.
Although you may not have
climbed many real mountains, you have climbed up
and down many figuratively.
This
problem-solving journey can be life-altering as
you prepare your research proposal (prospectus
or plan for your project) within a framework of
research in communication and leadership. Some
of you may have a prospectus idea. Others may
have no idea what you want to study. Your
prospectus will be the core assessment of the
course. Let's begin!
ABOUT THIS COURSE
WEEK 1
LECTURE
THE
ADVENTURE: YOU CAN HIKE TO THE TOP OF THE
MOUNTAIN
I'm Dr. Aitken, the course developer.
In this course, we are going to compare the research process to the exploration you might do if you are climbing a mountain. The analogy provides a learning anchor for students who learn well through visuals and those who learn through analogies.
We do not expect all our students to start from the same place.
I've taught research to many students over the years. I've found that students come from various backgrounds and a wide array of preparation--or lack of preparation--for this course. Some of you have studied communication theories, research in the physical sciences, and taken a course in statistics. You are well prepared and ready to set out on the trek. Others are wondering if you have any background for this course. Some of you are well-nourished by your prior coursework and experiences. Others have not prepared for this journey at all, but that's okay too!
I consider learning to be an adventure, and although I've only climbed one mountain--I found the experience to be interesting, fun, hard, exhilarating, and a life-altering experience. I hope the journey in this course will be a powerful experience as you prepare a research or project proposal within your framework of understanding about communication and leadership research. Remember, your proposal will be the core assessment of the course.
Some of the content of this course may be quite new to you. This course will help you understand enough about research to be able to effectively use scholarly databases and read communication journals. You won't get lost! Your professor will stick with you as your guide through the process of communication research. And when we come down off the mountain, you will have the skills to complete a senior project!
What is the senior project in communication?
The purpose of the project is to answer a question about communication. This project may be a research study on a communication topic or a creative project.
Your first step is to find a fascinating topic in communication, because the project will take much time and work. Hopefully, you have completed CA 348, Theories of Communication, and you have selected a topic to study in that course. If not, that's okay, but the earlier you focus on a topic, the easier this process will be.
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The subject of your proposal may come from two general sources: 1. The communication environment, with which you have first-hand experience. 2. A traditional research investigation of a particular aspect of corporate or organizational communication or leadership. |
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RESEARCH IN COMMUNICATION STUDIES |
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This course attracts a range of students--people working on an additional degree in communication, people with other majors who are unfamiliar with communication studies, and people just starting the program. So, we will begin with a refresher or review about the field of communication. This information may help you think about a topic you want to explore in the course. The main assignment for the course will be the design of a research project. Let's brainstorm about our field!
Adapted from a National Communication
Association presentation by
Bill Balthrop, University of North Carolina—Chapel Hill
Jim Gaudino, Executive Director, NCA
Scott Poole, Texas A&M University
Ellen Wartella, University of Texas--Austin
Communication and Leadership Research
Focuses on how people use messages to generate meanings within and across various contexts, cultures, channels, and media.
Encompasses studies of private and public as well as individual and mass communication.
Examines communication processes and their effects.
Modern Communication Research
World War II and Post-War Era
Concerns with attitude formation and change
Emergence of social and behavioral science approaches
Late 20th Century
Concerns with mass communication, communication policy, and media
Concerns with new communication technologies, cultural approaches
COMMUNICATION RESEARCH AREAS
Communication Studies: Scientific and critical research on human communication, including interpersonal, organizational, public, and intercultural communication and communication in various social, cultural, and political contexts. Leadership studies can be a broad field that fits into this area.
Mass Communication and Media Studies: Research on media institutions, media texts, media effects, and how media are used to produce and transform culture.
Speech and Rhetorical Studies: Research focused on political and social rhetoric, audience analysis, argumentation, rhetorical criticism, and rhetorical theory.
Telecommunication Studies: Research on the development, use, regulation, and effects of telecommunication technologies, including radio, television, Internet, and telephony.
Communication research is carried out in academic programs with school and department titles such as:
Communication
Communication and Leadership
Communication Studies
Information Studies
Journalism
Mass Communication
Media Studies
Speech Communication
Public Relations
Significant areas of communication research include
Audience analysis
Communication and public policy
Family communication
Health communication
Instructional communication
Intercultural communication
Interpersonal communication
Leadership studies
Legal communication
Media economics
Media effects
Media literacy
New communication technology
Nonverbal communication
Organizational communication
Persuasion and social influence
Political and social rhetoric
Risk communication
Visual communication
Communication scholars from discipline-based departments conduct major research projects with colleagues in such fields as:
Art and Design
Advertising
Business
Cultural Studies
Educational Leadership
English
Environmental Science
Ethnic and Women’s Studies
Health
Information Systems
Linguistics
Political Science
Sociology
Psychology
Communication research employs a wide range of methodologies, including all types of quantitative and qualitative social scientific research methods as well as humanistic and critical/cultural approaches:
Analysis of dynamic processes
Computational modeling
Content and textual analysis
Critical and cultural analysis
Discourse analysis
Ethnographic research
Ethnography (field observation)
Experimental research (including controlled experiments)
Feminist methods
Historiography
Mathematical modeling and simulations
Network analysis
Rhetorical criticism
Survey research
Communication is a Research-Based Field, which works toward theory-building
Scholarly journals
Research funding from Government Agencies and Private Foundations
Guggenheim and Fulbright Awards
Communication scholars serve or have served as program officers at major governmental research agencies.
Communication societies are affiliated with American Council of Learned Societies, American Association for the Advancement of Science, and Consortium of Social Science Associations.
Example Journals in Communication
Argumentation
Argumentation & Advocacy
Communication Education
Communication Monographs
Communication Quarterly
Communication Research
Communication Studies
Communication Teacher
Communication Theory
Critical Studies of Media Communication
European Journal of Communication
Health Communication
Human Communication Research
Journal of Applied Communication Research
Journal of Communication
Journal of Family Communication
Journal of Health Communication
Journal of Media Economics
Journalism and Mass Communication
Media Studies Journal
Philosophy and Rhetoric
Political Communication
Quarterly Journal of Speech
Rhetoric and Public Affairs
Rhetoric Society Quarterly
Rhetorica
Science Communication
Southern Communication Journal
Telecommunication Policy
Text and Performance Quarterly
Western Journal of Communication
There Are Some Beautiful Theories and Research, Which You Can Explore in Various Ways
Research
Read
Consider
Contemplate
Analyze
Critique
Digest
Reflect about
Apply
Discuss
EXAMPLE SKILLS TO DEVELOP THROUGH YOUR RESEARCH PROJECT
Effective speaking and presentations
Group and team work.
Influential and persuasion skills
Interpersonal and relational communication
Leadership
Management
Present and logically argue specific viewpoints
Problem solving and decision making
Research
Synthesizing information
Writing skills, including writing reports or promotional materials
Critical thinking skills.
Develop market research.
Measure media effects.
Planning and managing skills.
Identify and manage different needs of individuals and groups.
Recognize historical and theoretical perspectives.
Understand institutional and cultural values in global
society.
Developing Competence through this Research
Project:
Preparation for Corporate Contexts and Advanced Graduate Study.
Apply research theories to improve communication behavior.
Communicate effectively in various environments.
Compare and contrast evidence.
Evaluate ideas and make presentations.
Evaluate information and sources.
Gather information and data.
Pay attention to details.
Read theory-grounded research.
Work in teams and collaborative groups.
Work independently.
Work with deadlines.
Write about research with correctness and clarity.
EMPLOYMENT FOR COMMUNICATION AND LEADERSHIP MAJORS AND MINORS
A few examples: Advancement Officer, Bank Officer, Industrial & Labor Relations Specialist, Print Production Coordinator, Claims Adjuster/Examiner, Insurance Agent/Broker, Promotions Manager, Media Manager, Research Worker, Training & Development Specialist, Stockbroker, Service Representative, Travel Agent, Technical Writer, Broadcast Advertising Salesperson, Lighting Technician, Lobbyist
For more
ideas, see the following sites:
1.
UNC
2.
CSC
3.
NatCom
Communication educators are committed to developing knowledgeable, ethical, skilled, caring, and inclusive leaders for a diverse and changing world. That leadership may take place in many different contexts:
Political and civic
Social justice
Non-profit leadership
Government leadership
Business leadership
Health care
Profit, nonprofit, and not-for-profit organizations
Organizational Research can help you develop a better understanding of the following:
Decision-making and problem-solving.
Organizational culture
Organizational language and symbolism
Effective communication and managing conflict
Leadership practices
Adoption and effective use of communication technologies
Emergence of organizational and inter-organizational networks
New organizational forms
YOUR RESEARCH PROCESS
CA 348 helps you learn how to use Communication and Mass Media Complete database and write a review of literature on your topic.
CA382 guides you through developing your senior project proposal, including the method of your planned research.
CA491 is when you finish your senior project by carrying out the plan in your proposal.
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WRITING THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL Quoted or closely adapted from APA (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. 5th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. |
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Parts
of the Proposal Manuscript
Title
Page
Author's name and institutional affiliation, running head. Use a
strictly factual title.
Abstract
Write an accurate, self-contained, concise and specific, nonevaluative, brief,
coherent, and readable abstract (less than 100 words). An abstract of a report
of an empirical study should describe:
the problem under investigation, in one sentence if possible. The purpose of this study is to examine the communication skills implied as crucial for leadership in nonprofit organizations. The question to be answered is: What communication skills are implied as crucial for leadership in example nonprofit organizations?
the artifact you plan to study. The study will include an examination of the websites of four nonprofit organizations.
the method of study. The study will use content analysis to categorize and analyze content of the four websites of nonprofit organizations.
Introduction
Introduce the problem. No opinions. Why is this problem important?
State the purpose,
rationale, and your research question.
Review
of Literature
Theory building.
Develop the background. What is the theory-building or theoretical
foundation--cite specific theories--for the research? Use subheadings such
as the following:
Background
Previous Research Studies
http://multimedia.bostonherald.com
Method
Describe the design of your study. Most students conduct a content analysis, although there are other methods you might use. If you use a content analysis, explain the method, what you will examine, and how you will categorize data.
In other words, explain with detail, your planned procedures (what you will study and exactly how you will study). Summarize or paraphrase instructions. Tell the reader what you will do and how you will do it in sufficient detail so that a read could reasonably replicate your study.
Omit this part in the proposal, but include in your senior project.
Results
Summarize the data collected. Restate hypothesis(es) or research question.
Discussion
(Not
included in the proposal). Explain your results. In
this section, you can include your opinions based on your
research. Opinions are not appropriate in any other
section.
References (emphasize peer-reviewed articles from Ebscohost's
Communication and Mass Media Complete database.
Appendix (e.g., screenshots of the websites you analyzed).
Your APA Publication Manual can be your guide about how to write the research proposal.
You can obtain information by reading the American Psychological Association Publication Manual and Elements of Style, by Strunk and White. An electronic version of the Strunk and White book is available: click here.
WRITING THE REVIEW
OF LITERATURE
Quoted directly or adapted
from: Sumser, (2001). Chapter 5.
Sumser, J. (2001).
A guide to empirical research in
communication: Rules for looking. Thousand
Oaks: Sage.
A theory is an attempt to explain or represent some aspect of reality. Theories are abstract. They are rich enough to create hypotheses that can be tested and found to be either valid or invalid. A theory must be capable of generating testable hypotheses.
As you write, tell us why the research is interesting in itself, interesting because it has some qualities; It links to other ideas, or it provides a novel way of looking at something. Needs to be as objective as possible.
Some say never use the first person pronoun. The point of the rule is to force writers to think in general terms, outside of themselves.
Photo by Joan Aitken (Copyright 2008)
A review of literature is conducted for a number of reasons:
To find out (and incorporate) the most current theoretical thinking
To place a question within a scholarly context
To find out (and build on) the results of recent (and historical) empirical research.
To see how variables have traditionally been operationalized
To find, borrow, and build on the research designs of others
In short, the review of the literature allows you to put your ideas into a scholarly context in order to clarify them and to allow you to build on what is already known. Use Ebscohost's Communication and Mass Media Complete database to find sources in communication
Your review of literature provides the knowledge and information required to move your ideas to the point where they can be tested empirically.
The research questions is a rule for looking for something. In the hypothesis, the researcher says what he or she expects to find. A hypothesis requires a statistical test for you to support or reject the hypothesis based on the results of your study.
Most students use a content analysis or conduct some type of qualitative study for the senior project. Typically, they use a research question instead of a hypothesis to guide the study. A research question is a way of letting your reader know exactly what you are looking for.
METHOD
The design has to be clear enough that if someone wanted to replicate your work, it would be possible to do so. In other words, you need enough detail about how you will conduct your study that someone else could do the same thing and receive the same results.
Your ideas have to be linked to the appropriate literature (scholarly journal
articles in communication). And your research design has to be capable of
generating answers to the question you are asking
Photos by Ned Rozell www.gi.alaska.edu
Congratulations
on your progress this week. You're on your way up now! End of Lecture
WEEK 2 LECTURE
Any research project that uses human subjects--except archival--needs to be cleared through the Park Institutional Review Board http://www.park.edu/irb/
For most students, the most efficient approach to planning a study is to do archival research. In archival research, you will study communication that is public record. These communications are usually called artifacts, and they include films, television shows, scripts, speeches, webpages, company annual reports, and similar information open to the public.
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BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE Direct quotation or paraphrased from Kerlinger & Lee, 2000, Chapter 1. Kerlinger, F. N., & Lee, H. B. (2000). Foundations of behavioral research. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. |
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The scientist's approach to problems must be clearly understood. When understood, it will seem natural and almost inevitable what the scientist does.
Science and common sense differ sharply in
five ways. These disagreements revolve around the words systematic and
controlled.
1. The uses of conceptual schemes and
theoretical structures are strikingly different. Scientists systematically build
theoretical structures, test them for internal consistency, and put aspects of
them to empirical test.
2. Scientists systematically and empirically
test their theories and hypotheses.
3. The scientist tries to systematically rule
out variables that are possible "causes" of the effects under study other than
the variables hypothesized to be the "causes."
4. The scientist is constantly preoccupied
with relationships among phenomena. The scientist, while personally espousing
one or another viewpoint, insists on systematic and controlled testing of
relationships.
5. The scientist, when attempting to explain the relations among observed phenomena, carefully rules out what have been called "metaphysical explanations."
Scientists are concerned with things that can be publicly observed and tested. If propositions or questions do not contain implications for public observation and testing, they are not scientific propositions or questions.
Pierce
identified four methods of knowing.
1.
Tenacity.
People hold firmly to the truth, the truth that they know to be true because
they hold firmly to it, because they have always known it to be true.
2.
Authority.
The method of authority is based on established belief.
3.
A priori
method is a method of intuition. A priori propositions "agree with
reason" and not necessarily with experience. The idea seems to be that people,
through free communication and intercourse, can reach the truth because their
natural inclinations tend toward truth.
4. Science. The scientific approach has a characteristic that no other method of attaining knowledge has: self-correction. There are built-in checks all along the way to scientific knowledge. Scientists insist on testing evidence. They also insist that any testing procedure be open to public scrutiny. Science uses objectivity or agreement among "expert" judges on what is observed or what is to be done or has been done in research. The concern in this course is to use a scientific approach.
Photo copyright Joan Aitken, 2008
There seem to be three
popular
stereotypes that impede understanding of
scientific activity.
1. The white coat--stethoscope--laboratory type.
2. Brilliant individuals who think, spin complex theories, and spend their time
in ivory towers aloof from the world and its problems.
3. Requires engineering and technology.
Two broad views of science are the static and dynamic.
1. The static view seems to influence most laypeople and students, suggesting an
activity that contributes systematized information to the world. The scientist's
job is to discover new facts and to add them to the already existing body of
information. Science is even conceived to be a body of facts.
2. The dynamic view regards science more as an activity, what scientist do. In
the heuristic view, scientists seek to discover or reveal. This view emphasizes
theory and interconnected conceptual schemata that are fruitful for further
research.
What is theory?
Theory can predict. The adequacy of a theory is its predictive
power.
Theory is generalizable. Much valuable social scientific and
educational research is preoccupied with the shorter-range goal of finding
specific relations, that is, merely to discover a relation is part of science.
Modest, limited, and specific research aims, then are good. Theoretical research
aims are better because, among other reasons, they are more general and can be
applied to a wide range of situations.
Scientific research is systematic, controlled, empirical,
amoral, public, and critical investigation of natural phenomena.
It is guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed relationships among
such phenomena.
1. Scientific investigation is so ordered that investigators can have critical
confidence in research outcomes.
2. If the scientist believes something is so, that belief must somehow or other
be put to an outside independent test. Subjective belief, in other words, must
be checked against objective reality.
3. In science there is peer review.
4. Knowledge obtained scientifically is not subject or moral evaluation. The
results are neither considered bad or good, but in terms of validity and
reliability. The scientific method is, however subject to issues of morality;
that is, scientists are held responsible for the methods used in obtaining
scientific knowledge.
Dewey's Scientific Approach
Remember fifth grade science? Those science experiments follow the same basic procedures as you will follow in your research here. You will propose a question about communication and use a scientific method to answer the question.
1. Problem - Obstacle - Idea
formulate the research problem or question to be solved.
2. Question.
formulate a question about the relationship between phenomena or variables
3. Reasoning - Deduction
scientist deduces the consequences of the question. This can lead to a more
significant problem and provide ideas on how the question can be tested in
observable terms.
4. Observation
This is the data collection and analysis phase. The results of the research
conducted are related back to the problem.
Look at this research Emoto. Now look at this site: click here or click here. What is science?
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RULES FOR LOOKING Directly quoted or closely adapted. Chapter 1. Sumser, J. (2001). A guide to empirical research in communication: Rules for looking. Thousand Oaks: Sage. |
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We develop theories or explanations about the way the world is, and then we look to see if the world is in fact the way we have supposed.
Social science research methods are the rules of the game of "looking." Research methodology is the link between thinking and evidence. True is not a word that is used much in research methodology. Social scientists, like all scientists, are a cautious lot, less interested in discovering things than in trying to determine the relationship between things. They are less concerned with fact, to put it another way, than with explanations.
The possibility of being wrong is one of the anchors of science. Scientists are seeking knowledge about what happens when you look at the world. We have a shifting and overlapping set of plausible accounts created by different theories, resulting in different tests.
The Rules of Looking are agreed upon by those who make claims about the world. Research methodology is dependent on theory and conceptualizations. Social scientists, like all scientists, understand that their conclusions cannot be separated from the processes that created them.
Research is empirical when the questions that one asks can most appropriately be answered by looking at the world rather than by thinking about it. Questions about what we should do are not empirical questions.
Between truth and opinion is knowledge. A research process is reliable if you get similar results each time you repeat it. There are exceptions to even the strongest patterns of behavior, and we have to make sure that our results reflect the rule rather than the exception. Validity reflects reality in some meaningful way.
Research should be designed in such a way that is possible for the researcher to find out that his or her ideas are wrong. Research is designed to provide support for ideas and rule out alternative explanations.
The research needs to be useful. We don't ask if the research is true. Instead, we ask about its reliability and validity. We want to know if the research actually leads us somewhere new and serves a critical purpose. Finally, we want to determine how useful the research is in some realm--intellectual, practical, or social
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USING VARIABLES IN THE
SOCIAL SCIENCES Directly quoted or closely adapted from Sumser (2001), Chapter 2. Dividing up the World: Using Variables in the Social Sciences. Sumser, J. (2001). A guide to empirical research in communication: Rules for looking. Thousand Oaks: Sage. |
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In the social sciences, we are concerned with how things work in general rather than with why any particular person did any particular thing. Thinking about the world in terms of variables is known as the variable analytic approach or nonmothetic. The narrative approach, which is often seen in historical studies and in anthropological and sociological fieldwork is ideographic
Dividing the world into variables is a way of simplifying it so that we can understand what is going on. The use of variables gets rid of information that is seen as irrelevant and allows us to obtain more usable information. The way we use variables depends on what kind of research methods we are using and the theories and hypotheses we have. What something means and which method you use are dependent on what you want to do and the sorts of explanations you are interested in testing. Methods and data are things you use. The more you delve into a topic, the more your ideas will be shaped by the theories and research of fellow scholars.
Because variables are simply categories that we make up in order to make sense of the world, there is virtually no limit to the number of variables we could use.
Variables are ways that we divide the world rather than ways the world is divided.
The attributes of a variable need to have two qualities: They must be mutually exclusive and they must be exhaustive. A variable's attributes are mutually exclusive if it is not possible for whatever is being examined to have two attributes. A variable is exhaustive if its attributes cover all possible cases.
Photo by Joan Aitken (Copyright 2008)
Congratulations
on your progress this week. You're on your way up the mountain!
End of Lecture
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WEEK 3 LECTURE Direct quotation or paraphrased from Ker linger & Lee, 2000, Chapter 2. Problems and Hypotheses. |
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Formulating the research problem is not an easy task. The researcher starts with a general, diffused, and vague notion and then gradually refines it. Research problems differ greatly and there is no one right way to state the problem.
Three criteria of a good
problem and problem statement:
a. The problem should be expressed as a relationship between two
or more variables.
b. The problem should be put in the form of a question.
c. The problem statement should imply the possibilities of
empirical testing.
A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relationship between two or more variables. It is put in the form of a declarative statement. A criteria for a good hypothesis is the same as (a) and (b) in criteria of a good problem.
Importance of problems and
hypotheses:
a. It is a working instrument of science and a specific working
statement of theory.
b. Hypotheses can be tested and be predictive.
c. Advance knowledge.
Virtues of problems and
hypotheses:
a. Direct investigation and inquiry.
b. Enable the researcher to deduce specific empirical
manifestations.
c. Serve as the bridge between theory and empirical inquiry.
Scientific problems are not moral or ethical questions. Science cannot answer value or judgmental questions.
Detection of value questions: Look for words such as better than, should, or ought.
Another common defect of
problem statements is the list of methodological points as
sub-problems.
a. They are not substantive problems that come directly from the
basic problem.
b. They relate to techniques or methods of sampling, measuring,
or analyzing; not in question form.
Problems and hypotheses need to reflect the multivariate complexity of behavioral science reality.
The hypothesis is one of the most powerful tools invested to achieve dependable knowledge. It has the power of prediction. A negative finding for a hypothesis can serve to eliminate one possible explanation and open other hypotheses and line of investigation.
Exploration
Each day, there are more and more resources available on the Internet. You may
want to find reliable Internet sources to provide alternative ways of describing
course concepts, definitions to new terms, and to provide additional
information. External links constantly change and are beyond our control.
Therefore, here are multiple links offered as prompts--when working--that may
help you learn course content.
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VARIABLES Direct quotation or paraphrased from Ker linger & Lee, 2000, Chapter 3. Constructs, Variables, and Definitions. |
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Scientists operate on two levels: theory-hypothesis-construct and observation. More accurately, they shuttle back and forth between these levels. Whenever scientists utter relational statements and use concepts, or constructs as we shall call them, they are operating at one level. Scientists must also operate at the level of observation. They must gather data to test hypotheses. They must define constructs so that observations are possible.
The terms concept and construct have similar meanings, yet there is an important distinction. A concept expresses an abstraction formed by generalization from particulars.
A construct is a concept consciously INVENTED or adopted for a special scientific purpose.
Scientists somewhat loosely call the constructs or properties they study "variables." Some examples of important variables in our field may be gender, income, education, social class, organizational productivity, occupational mobility, and achievement. It can be said that a variable is a property that takes on different values. Putting it redundantly, a variable is something that varies.
A variable is a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned. For instance, x is a variable; it is a symbol to which we assign numerical values. The variable x may take on any justifiable set of values, for example, scores on an intelligence test or an attitude scale.
Words or constructs can be defined in two general ways. First, we can define a word by using other words, which is what a dictionary does. Second, we can also provide a behavioral or observational definition. Scientists use the types of definitions just described in a more precise manner. A constitutive definition defines a construct using other constructs. For instance, we can define weight by saying that it is the heaviness of objects. An operational definition assigns meaning to a construct or a variable by specifying the activities or operations necessary to measure it and evaluate the measurement. Alternatively, an operational definition is a specification of the activities of the research in measuring a variable or in manipulating it. An operational definition is a sort of manual of instructions to the investigator. It says, in effect, Do such and such in a so and so manner. In short, it defines or gives meaning to a variable by spelling out what the investigator must do to measure it and evaluate that measurement. For example, an operational definition might be: Intelligence is the score as measured by the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Third Edition (WISC-III).
Types of variables.
*1. The independent variable is varied and has a presumed cause on another variable, the dependent variable. In an experiment, it is the manipulated variable. It is the variable under the control of the experimenter. In a nonexperimental study, the independent variable is the variable that has a logical effect on the dependent variable.
*2. The dependent variable's effect alters concomitantly with changes or variations in the independent variable.
independent variable = x (the variable predicted from)
dependent variable = y (the variable predicted to)
Example: High mother interaction with infants (x or independent variable) during the first six months increases intelligence (y or dependent variable).
In reading journal articles,
you may find additional terms used to describe variables:
3. An active variable is manipulated. Manipulation means that
the experimenter has control over how the values change.
4. An attributive variable is measured and cannot be manipulated. A variable that cannot be manipulated is one where the experimenter has no control over the values of the variable.
5. A continuous variable is capable of taking on an ordered set of values within a certain range. Between two values there are an infinite number of other values. These variables reflect at least a rank order.
6. Categorical variables belong to a kind of measurement where objects are assigned to a subclass or subset. The subclasses are distinct and nonoverlapping. All objects put into the same category are considered to have the same characteristic(s).
7. Latent variables are unobservable entities. They are assumed to underlie observed variables.
8. Intervening variables are constructs that account for internal unobservable psychological processes that account for behavior. It cannot be seen but is inferred from behavior.
An important element of research is the concept of statistical significance. The .05 level means that an obtained result that is significant at the .05 level could occur by chance no more than five times in 100 trials. A level; of statistical significance is to some extent chosen arbitrarily. The .05 and .01 levels have been chosen widely. There is a newer trend of thinking that advocates reporting the significance levels of all results. That is, if a result is significant at the .12 level, say, it should be reported accordingly. Some practitioners object to this practice. They say that one should make a bet and stick to it. (Ker linger & Lee, pp. 232-233).
Keep moving
forward. Make sure you are working on your review of literature for your
proposal. You're making progress!
End of Lecture.
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WEEK 4 LECTURE Direct quotation or paraphrased from Kerlinger & Lee, 2000, Chapter 5. Relations. |
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People who study communication are concerned about relationships: relationships between people, relationships between events, relationships between experiences and behavior. Scientists are concerned about relationships, or what they more typically call "relations."
Relations are the essence of knowledge. Almost all science pursues and studies relations. What is important in science is not knowledge of particulars but knowledge of the relations among phenomena. We know that large things are large only by comparing them to smaller things. We thus establish the relations "greater than" and "lesser than." Educational scientists can "know" about achievement only as they study achievement in relation to nonachievement and in relation to other variables, for example.
Relations in science are between classes or sets of objects.
Ways of studying relations include graphs and tables, plots, and correlations.
http://www.simplonpc.co.uk/Alaska.html
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Direct quotation or paraphrased from Ker linger & Lee, 2000, Chapter 6. Variance and Covariance. |
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Variances come in a number of forms. When you read the research and technical literature, you will frequently come across the term, sometimes with a qualifying adjective, sometimes not. To understand the literature, it is necessary to have a good idea of the characteristics and purposes of these different variances. And to design and do research, one must have a rather thorough understanding of the variance concept as well as considerable mastery of statistical variance notions and manipulations.
Differences between measurements are needed in order to study the relations between variables.
A statistical measure used in studying differences is the variance.
The variance along with the mean is used to solve research problems.
Some kinds of variance.
1. The variability of a variable or characteristic in the
universe or population is called the population variance.
2. A subset of the universe is called a sample and that sample
also has variability. That variability is referred to as sample
variance.
3. Since the statistic computed from sample to sample differs,
this difference is referred to as sampling variance.
4. Systematic variance is the variation that can be accounted
for. It can be explained. Any natural or human-made influences
that cause events to happen in a predictable way are systematic
variance.
5. One type of systematic variance is called between-group
variance. When there are differences between groups of subjects,
and the cause of that difference is known, it is referred to as
between-group variance.
Covariance is the relationship between two or more variables.
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Direct quotation or paraphrased from Ker linger & Lee, 2000, Chapter 7. Probability. |
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Probability is an obvious and simple subject; it is a baffling and complex subject. It is a subject we know a great deal about; it is a subject we know nothing about. Kindergartners and philosophers can study probability. It is dull; it is interesting. Such contradictions are the stuff of probability.
Take the expression "laws of chance." The expression itself is seemingly contradictory. Chance or randomness, by definition, is the absence of law. If events can be explained lawfully, they are not random. Then why say "laws of chance?' The answer, too, is seemly contradictory. It is possible to gain knowledge from ignorance if we view randomness as ignorance. This is because random events, in the aggregate, occur in lawful ways with monotonous regularity. From the disorder of randomness the scientist welds together the order of scientific prediction and control.
It is not easy to explain these disconcerting statements. Indeed, philosophers disagree on the answers. Fortunately, there is no disagreement on the empirical probabilitistic events--or at least very little. Almost all scientists and philosophers agree that if two dice are thrown a number of times, there will probably be more 7s than 2s or 12s. They will also agree that certain events like finding a $100 bill or winning a sweepstakes are extremely unlikely.
Definition of Probability:
a priori: The probability of an event is the number of favorable
cases divided by the total number of (equally possible) cases (p
= probability). This definition is the basis of theoretical
mathematical probability.
a posteriori (relative long-run frequency): In an actual series of tests, probability is the ratio of the number of times an event occurs to the total number of trials. With this definition, one approaches probability empirically by performing a series of tests, counting the number of times a certain kind of event happens, and then calculating the ratio. The result of the calculation is the probability of the certain kind of event. Frequency definitions have to be used when theoretical enumeration over classes of events is not possible. A statement that a diamond cutter is 95% accurate indicates that out of every 100 diamonds this person has cut in the past, 95% of them were cut correctly. This long-run relative frequency approach is the most prevalent in behavioral science research.
Suppose you are answering a multiple choice question, where you don't know the answer. There are four choices--a, b, c, d--so what is the probability of you guessing the right answer? Suppose you can eliminate response b; what is the probability of guessing the right answer? Suppose you look up the answer on the Internet; what is the probability of guessing the right answer?
You are making progress toward the summit!
End of Unit's Lecture
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WEEK 5 LECTURE OPERATIONALIZATION Direct quotation or paraphrased from Sumser, Chapter 3 Operationalization: Just Exactly What Do You Mean by That? Sumser, J. (2001). A guide to empirical research in communication: Rules for looking. Thousand Oaks: Sage. |
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The key to good research is clarity.
The definition (also known as
conceptualization) tells us what sort of thing to look for. The
operationalization spells out the criteria for saying that
something is, or is not, an "act of violence." The point of
operationalizing a term or a concept is to:
State clearly exactly what we mean by the term, in the context
in which it is being research.
State clearly what it means for something to be included or
excluded from a category.
Make it possible for another researcher to replicate (repeat) or
expand on our study.
The purpose of adhering to research methods guidelines is to design a research program that has the potential (a) to produce conclusions that run counter to your expectations and beliefs and (b) to convince people who do not agree with your positions.
A great deal of content analysis research blends these two approaches because content analysis frequently involves both interpretation and counting.
Different students will use different method--the method that best fits your problem well--to reach your research destination
.
Photo by Joan Aitken (Copyright 2008)
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SURVEY RESEARCH Direct quotation or paraphrased from Ker linger & Lee, 2000, Chapter 25. Survey Research. |
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Survey research is a type of quantitative field study.
Survey research attempts to find relations between sociological and psychological variables.
Survey research is a development of the twentieth century.
The general focus of survey research is on people.
Interviews, schedules, panels, telephone and mail surveys are different types of surveys.
The type of survey that yields the best information is the interview. Mail surveys contain the greatest amount of problems.
Survey research can obtain a wide range of information, but cannot provide in-depth information. It is more extensive than intensive.
The methodology of survey research includes a "flow plan." This plan outlines the design and implementation of a survey.
The construction of the questionnaire or survey is one of the important parts of the plan. Another part is the sampling plan (i.e., who to sample and how will the sampling be done?).
Data collection can be a laborious task. If interviews are used, then interviewers need to be trained properly.
Getting the data into machine-readable form is another big task in survey research. This would also include the analysis of the data.
Survey research can be expensive in terms of time, money, and labor. In a large survey, findings are not quickly accessible before the end of the study.
Meta-analysis is a form of survey research. Experimental research usually uses an individual participant as a unit of measurement. In meta-analysis, the individual studies are themselves the unit of measurement.
Meta-analysis involves collecting a number of studies on a similar topic and summarizing the findings. The goal is to define some general law of behavior.
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Direct quotation or paraphrased from Sumser (2001). Sumser, J. (2001). A guide to empirical research in communication: Rules for looking. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
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It's not the mountains ahead that wear you out. It's the grain of sand in your shoe. -Unknown.
Qualitative analysis is challenging. It requires an eye for nuances but also superior writing skills to organize your notes into a coherent narrative.
FIELDWORK
Field research allows us to watch people in natural settings and to engage them in conversation, asking them to explain what it is they are doing. The goal is to understand what people are doing from their perspectives, or a study of conceptualization as observation.
Fieldwork has very high validity, meaning the data is relevant to real life, but very low reliability. Fieldwork is relatively unscientific because there is little or not control or ability to repeat the research. The ability to repeat research is replication, which enables reliability. Ethnography is when the researcher does not attempt to manipulate the situation being examined. Sometimes researchers take a more aggressive role and manipulate the environment or situation in such a way that the research becomes a blend of fieldwork and experimentation that is called a field experiment or quasi-experiment. Ethnographic is nonintrusive. As an outsider, the researchers has to fit into the environment in some way. One of the problems with fieldwork is that if you have a narrowly focused question it may be hard to collect data. By manipulating the situation, you introduce variables into it. Variables are used to simplify and standardize situations. Field experiments can range from being mildly aggressive manipulations to fairly rigidly structured experiments. Fieldwork is used to generate, rather than test, conceptualizations, so it is associated with grounded theory, which is the effort to base theories on empirical observations.
Hermeneutic circle is the constant evolution of concepts as one looks, then thinks, then looks, then thinks. You approach the situation to be studied without a preconceived conceptual framework. You let the ideas rise out of the experience and then use the ideas to help focus your experience. The hermeneutic circle suggests that at first you study pretty much everyone and then focus on select people as you learn more. Invisible people or marginal people in every organization can provide much information.
The key to sampling in fieldwork is being systematic and really thinking about what you want to talk about. Snowball sampling is when you ask each person you speak to if he or she knows of someone else you might be able to talk to. Its primary weakness is that you may end up avoiding marginal people.
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SURVEY RESEARCH |
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When we are interested in values, opinions, perceptions, concerns, ideas, or attitudes, we can--with a great deal of caution--simply ask people what they are thinking. Survey research ranks very high on reliability. Like experiments, surveys are easily repeated because it is possible to exactly duplicate both the data collection (the questions asked) and the sampling design. Survey researchers, like experimenters, have a great deal of control.
Surveys tend to be cross-sectional rather than longitudinal. Surveys are not generally designed to examine changes. Surveys attempt to find out how people are thinking at a given time. There are three basic types of longitudinal studies: cohort, panel, and repeated cross-sectional. A cohort study follows a group of people who have some sort of shared identity. A panel study looks at the same individuals each time a survey is conducted. There is a problem of attrition. Repeated cross-sectional studies assume any representative sample will do.
A validity concern is that people will shade their responses toward what they think are the researcher's biases or toward what they believe will put them in a better light. People do not want to label themselves as extremists. There is a statistical regression to the mean if people repeat.
In constructing questions:
Photo by Joan Aitken (Copyright 2008)
http://jackiemosley.blogspot.com
Keep moving. You are making serious progress! End of Unit's Lecture
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LECTURE WEEK 7 SAMPLING AND RANDOMNESS Direct quotation or paraphrased from Ker linger & Lee, 2000, Chapter 8. Sampling and Randomness |
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Imagine the many situations in which we want to know something about people, about events, about things. To learn something about people, for instance, we take a few people whom we know--or do not know--and study them. After our "study," we reach certain conclusions, often about people in general. Some such method is behind much folk wisdom. Common sense observations about people, their motives, and their behaviors derive, for the most part, from observations and experiences with relatively few people. We might make statement such as: "People nowadays have no sense of moral values." The basis of the statement is a conclusion based on our limited experience. People sample their experiences of other people.
Sampling refers to taking a portion of a population or universe as representative of that population or universe. This definition does not say that the sample taken--or drawn, as researchers say--is representative, but they are considering the sample to be representative.
In research, a representative sample means that the sample has approximately the characteristics of the population relevant to the research in question.
A sample drawn at random is unbiased in the sense that no member of the population has more of chance of being selected than any other member. We cannot ever be sure that the sample is accurate and the research is correct. Random samples are more likely to include the characteristics typical of the population if the characteristics are frequent in the population.
The notion of randomness is at the core of modern probabilistic methods in the natural and behavioral sciences. In fact, scientists are quite systematic about randomness; they carefully select random samples and plan random procedures.
We say events are random if we cannot predict their outcomes. Randomness means that there is no known law, capable of being expressed in language that correctly describes or explains events and their outcomes. When events are random we cannot predict them individually. Strange to say, however, we can predict them quite successfully in the aggregate. That is, we can predict the outcomes of large numbers of events. We cannot predict whether a coin tossed will be heads or tails, but if we toss a fair coin 1,000 times, we can predict, with considerable accuracy, the total numbers of heads and tails.
A table of random numbers contains numbers generated mechanically so that there is no discernible order or system in them.
Kinds of Samples. Simple random sampling is not the only kind of sampling used in behavioral research. Indeed, it is relatively uncommon, at least for describing characteristics of populations and their relations between such characteristics. Is nevertheless, the model upon which all scientific sampling is based.
Other kinds of samples can be classified broadly into probability and nonprobability samples (and certain mixed forms). Probability samples use some form of random sampling in one or more of their stages. Nonprobability samples do not use random sampling; they thus lack the virtues being discussed, but are still often necessary and unavoidable. Their weakness can to some extent be mitigated by using knowledge, expertise, and care in selecting samples, and by replicating studies with different samples.
You'll be able to get to the top and back home now. You are doing great!
End of Unit's Lecture
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RESERACH DESIGN
Directly quoted or adapted
from Kerlinger & Lee, 2000.
Chapter 20.
General Designs of Research. |
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The design of a study is its blueprint or plan for the investigation.
The experimental design is where at least one of the independent variables used in the study is manipulated.
Nonexperimental designs are those designs where there is no randomization to equate the groups prior to administering treatment.
For experimental designs, usually the most appropriate statistical method to use is analysis of variance.
The experimental group--control group design with randomized participants is the best design for many experimental behavioral research studies.
You're near the end of the journey now!
End of Unit's Lecture
YOU'VE ARRIVED!
Here is a view at the top of the world--Barrow's North Point, Alaska--which is the most northern land in North America. Yes, the ocean is still frozen. How is your view now that you've achieved your goal for the course?
Photo Copyright Joan Aitken.
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Week 7 (Unit 7): The Summit Additional Exploration: Ker linger & Lee, 2000, Ch. 29. Interviews and Interview Schedules.
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The interview is the oldest and most universal method of extracting large amounts of information from people.
The data collection methods used in an interview can be classified by the amount of directness in the questions and questioning.
Interviews require a lot of time. Hence, data collection is expensive in terms of time, effort, and money.
Interviews require well-trained interviewers and a well-developed questionnaire.
The interview can be used for three main purposes: as an exploratory device to generate ideas and hypotheses, as the main instrument used in a study, and as a supplement to other methods and/or used as a follow-up.
The interview is a face-to-face interpersonal role situation. It can be structured or unstructured.
One type of unstructured interview is the group interview or focus groups.
What are criteria for writing items or
questions in the schedule?
1. Is the question related to the research problem and the research objectives?
2. Is the type of question appropriate?
3. Is the item clear and unambiguous?
4. Is the question a leading question?
5. Does the question demand knowledge and information that the respondent does
not have?
6. Does the question demand personal or delicate material that the respondent
may resist?
7. Is the question loaded with social desirability? People tend to give
responses that are socially desirable; responses that indicate or imply approval
of actions or things that are generally considered to be good. Unless we are
careful, we will get a stereotyped response.
The focus group method is an unstructured interview using a small number of
participants. These are low in cost and quick to do. Focus group research is
qualitative research. Focus groups have a problem in generalization.
What is an interview schedule?
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Week 7 (Unit 7) Additional Exploration: Ker linger & Lee, 2000, Ch. 30. Objective Tests and Scales. |
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The test or scale is the most utilized method in the behavioral sciences for collecting data. A goal is to develop and use tests that are objective. Scientific objectivity does not depend on the characteristics of the scientist. Scientific objectivity involves agreement between expert judges. Methods of observation and data collection have different degrees of objectivity.
A test is a systematic procedure to determine the behavior of individuals.
A scale is a set of symbols or numerals constructed in a way such that these numerals or symbols can be assigned to individuals using some rule. Scales and items can be divided into three types: Agreement-Disagreement, rank order, and forced -choice.
The research should take the time to determine if a test already exists for the study. There are a number of published and unpublished sources for tests. A new test should be created only if no test exists for the researcher's purpose.
Now here's a view! Mt. McKinley (Denali), Alaska. Photo by Joan Aitken (Copyright 2008)
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OBSERVATIONS OF BEHAVIOR Quoted or adapted from: Ker linger & Lee, 2000, Ch. 31. . |
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There is a lot of controversy and debate about observation and methods of observation.
Two basic modes of observation
1. We can watch peoples' overt actions (i.e., what they do and
what they say)
2. We can ask people about their own actions and the behavior of
others.
The observer could be a major problem in the study. The observer could make incorrect inferences about the observed behavior. The observer can affect the objects of observation by being part of the observational system.
Observed measurements are subject to reliability and validity requirements. By having the observer interpret the observation, validity may be reduced. Reliability for observations is in the form of agreement between judges or observers. The behavior to be measured through direct observation must be stated clearly with good operational definitions.
The fundamental task for the observer is to categorize the observed data. Categories are created, and as certain behaviors are observed, a tally or note is made in the category.
Some researchers use very strict operational definitions. All observation requires some level of interpretation from the observer.
Different observation systems vary in the amount of generalizability. Some are very general, others are quite specific.
Behaviors can be sampled using event sampling or time sampling techniques. Each has advantages and disadvantages.
One type of observation involves observers presented with an observation system in the form of a rating scale. They are asked to assess an object in terms of one or more characteristics.
Ratings have two serious weaknesses:
1. Because ratings are easy to
construct and use, they may be created without knowledge of
their intrinsic defects.
Ratings are prone to constant or bias error.
Sociometry is a broad term indicating the number of methods of gathering and analyzing data on choice, communication, and interaction patterns of individuals in groups.
Now you should be ready to write your full proposal. Hope you're enjoying your journey!
End of Lecture
WEEK 7
CALCULATING STATISTICS
The emphasis in this course is on research design for a proposed communication study. If you are doing qualitative research--such as most content analysis--you will not need to use statistics.
If you are answering a research question, you probably don't need to use statistics.
Because some students may want to use statistics, information is provided here to help students understand how to use statistics in their studies.
If you test a hypothesis, you will need to run the appropriate statistical test so you can accept or reject your hypothesis. Although we cannot teach statistics in this course, we do need to give some guidance to students who plan to use statistics in their research project.
If you want to learn statistics, you will want to take a statistics course to understand the nature and logic of statistics. Knowing about statistics will better understand some of the scholarly articles you read.
Today, computers make this process easy. You need to (a) know the kind of statistics to use by checking a chart like this one (b) enter the data into Excel or some other calculator, and (c) check the results to determine whether they are significant. Microsoft Excel provides a set of data analysis tools— called the Analysis ToolPak— that you can use to save steps when you develop complex statistical analyses. You provide the data and parameters for each analysis; the tool uses the appropriate statistical functions and then displays the results in an output table. Some tools generate charts in addition to output tables.
USING EXCEL TO RUN
STATISTICAL TESTS
Excel is a spreadsheet program inside Microsoft Office (e.g., the same program
suite as ). For most statistical tests,
you can use the Tools function, Data Analysis in Excel. If the Data Analysis
command is not available, you need to load the Analysis ToolPak add-in
(add-in: A supplemental program that adds custom commands or custom features to
Microsoft Office.) program.
If the add-in program you want is not in the list under Add-Ins available in the Add-Ins dialog box, you might be able to install the add-in from the Microsoft Office Web site.
Now you can enter the data and run the statistical tests inside Excel.
USING ONLINE CALCULATORS TO RUN STATISTICAL TESTS
If you don't have Excel, there are online sources for free
which will allow you to run statistical tests. Here are some examples, but
if the link doesn't work, you can find your own by searching the Internet.
Graphing calculators can help you visual what you input, click here or click here. Firefox addon.
Descriptive
statistics. For example, calculate the mean:
here.
Deciding which test: here.
Chi-square here.
ANOVA: here.
correlation: here.
USING SPSS TO RUN STATISTICAL TESTS
SPSS will be available on campus for Parkville students in the Fall, 2006. SPSS works pretty much like Microsoft Office software, and you can upload data from an Excel spreadsheet straight into SPSS. To help you figure out what statistical test you should use, you can go to "Help" in the upper right of SPSS and select "Statistics Coach." These pages will walk you through figuring out the most appropriate test to use. Below is an example page. It's great!
MEASURES
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A measure is a test, also known as the apparatus. One of the best ways to figure out good design and an appropriate measure is through reading quantitative scholarly journal articles related to your topic. Pay close attention to how they design and conduct their studies. Journal articles using the measure--especially the first--usually contain the measure. Reliability is consistency of a test. You want a measure with reliability—as expressed as a statistical correlation—of at least .6 is a correlation and .8 is exceptionally good. Validity is that the test actually measures what it is supposed to measure. The Heffner text has a good explanation of reliability and validity: http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/validityreliability.html The best measure to select for your project--if you need one--is an accepted one, which has reliability and validity established. This approach is much better than designing your own measure for which you will have to establish reliability and validity.
Here is a site of measures
by McCroskey and his
colleagues, which you can use
http://www.jamescmccroskey.com/measures/
McCroskey has his doctorate in measurement, and
he's the most published journal author in our
field.
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STATISTICS: PURPOSE, APPROACH, METTHOD Direct quotation or paraphrased from Ker linger and Lee (2000), Chapter 11. |
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The basic principle behind the use of statistical tests of significance is to compare obtained (observed, empirical) results to chance expectations.
Four purposes of statistics are to
1. reduce data to manageable and understandable forms
2. aid in the study of populations and samples
3. aid in decision making
aid in making reliable inferences from samples to populations.
Binomial data consists of two admissible outcomes.
Under certain conditions, the normal curve can be used to approximate binomial distribution.
The law of large numbers states that the larger the sample, the closer the sample value approaches the true (population) value.
Chance events tend to distribute themselves in the form of a normal curve.
Using the normal curve simplifies the interpretation of data analysis.
The normal curve has certain mathematical properties that make it attractive to use in statistical analysis and interpretation.
http://www.comfsm.fm/~dleeling/statistics/normal_curve.gif
The normal curve is the a standardized test that has a normal distribution of scores comparable to the general population. Stardized IQ scores are often discussed this way. The normal curve regarding IQ in the US always looks the same, with the same percentages. Average intelligence is an IQ of 100.
Standard scores, Z, are linear transformations (reexpressions) of raw scores. Use of Z-scores enhances interpretability of data because they are expressed as standard deviation units. Z-scores from different distributions can be meaningfully compared to one another. Converting normally distributed raw scores to Z-scores allows one to use the table for the normal curve to determine percentages, areas, and probabilities.
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TESTING HYPOTHESES AND THE STANDARD ERROR Direct quotation or paraphrased from Kerlinger & Lee, 2000, Chapter 12. |
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The standard error is the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of sample statistics./p>
Standard errors serve to evaluate difference between means and difference between the sample correlation and zero.
Small differences can be statistically significant if the standard error is proportionally smaller. Standard errors serve as a yardstick against which experimental variance is checked.
The Central Limit Theorem is one of the most important theorems in statistics. By the Central Limit Theorem, the sampling distribution of sample means is approximately normal in shape even though the distribution from which the samples were drawn was not normal.
A substantive hypothesis is a conjectural statement of relation between two variables.
Statistical hypothesis is a conjectural statement of relation between two variables.
Statistical hypotheses are restatements of substantive hypothesis into statistical terms.
Hypothesis tests involve the null and statistical hypotheses.
There are five basic steps of hypothesis testing.
The standard error is an important part in sample size determination.
What Statistical Test is Appropriate?
click here.
Online stats calculator:
click here.
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Type of Data click here. |
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Goa |
Measurement (from bell-shaped, normal Gaussian Population) |
Rank, Score, or Measurement (from Non- Gaussian Population) |
Binomial |
Survival Time |
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Describe one group |
Mean, SD |
Median, interquartile range |
Proportion |
Kaplan Meier survival curve |
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Compare one group to a hypothetical value |
One-sample t test |
Wilcoxon test |
Chi-square |
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Compare two unpaired groups |
Unpaired t test |
Mann-Whitney test |
Fisher's test |
Log-rank test or Mantel-Haenszel* |
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Compare two paired groups |
Paired t test |
Wilcoxon test |
McNemar's test |
Conditional proportional hazards regression* |
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Compare three or more unmatched groups |
One-way ANOVA |
Kruskal-Wallis test |
Chi-square test |
Cox proportional hazard regression** |
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Compare three or more matched groups |
Repeated-measures ANOVA |
Friedman test |
Cochrane Q** |
Conditional proportional hazards regression** |
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Quantify association between two variables |
Pearson correlation |
Spearman correlation |
Contingency coefficients** |
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Predict value from another measured variable |
Simple linear regression |
Nonparametric regression** |
Simple logistic regression* |
Cox proportional hazard regression* |
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Predict value from several measured or binomial variables |
Multiple linear regression* |
Multiple logistic regression* |
Cox proportional hazard regression* |
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Relating Research Designs to Appropriate Statistical Analyses click here.
Scales of Measurement
Nominal (category, not numerical)
Ordinal (array, greater than)
Interval (equal intervals)
Ratio (zero point, equivalent intervals)
Photo by Joan Aitken (Copyright 2008)
If you decide to use a complicated statistical procedures for your project, you may want to ask a statistician to help you.
Congratulations! How's your view from the top? End of Unit's Lecture
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WEEK 8 LECTURE Heading Home |
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Heading home
Course Glossary
.05 level of significance. The .05 level of significance means that an obtained result that is significant at the .05 level could occur by chance no more than five times in 100 trials. A level of statistical significance is to some extent chosen arbitrarily. The .05 and .01 levels have been chosen widely. There is a newer trend of thinking that advocates reporting the significance levels of all results.
ABA design: Behavior changes when the treatment is introduced and changes again when the treatment is withdrawn. This describes an ABA design. ABA refers to a specific type of research design in which you have a baseline period where no treatment is given and/or no variable is introduced (A), followed by a period in which the treatment or variable is introduced (B), and then a period in which the treatment is removed so the behavior can be observed a second time (A). This way you can measure behavior before treatment, during treatment, and once treatment is removed.
ABAB design has both ethical and internal validity advantages over the ABA design.
Analytical steps include: A) the statistical test is applied to determine whether differences or relationships exist. B) determining if the difference or relationship found is the relationship or difference predicted. C) determining the statistical importance of the difference or relationship. D) generalizing the findings.
AND between concept terms yields fewer results than OR between terms.
Anonymized data — Lacking “identifiers or codes that can link a particular sample to an identified specimen or a particular human being.” Source: 2000. Research Involving Human Biological Materials: Ethical Issues and Policy Guidance, Executive Summary. Rockville, MD: National Bioethics Advisory Committee: p. 2. (
Anonymity and confidentiality are two types of protection given to participants. Anonymity means you don't know who the subjects are. Confidentiality are that you protect the subject's identification. Protection for the research team is not paramount. Protection given to participants is crucial.
ANOVA: When a researcher uses an ANOVA, the consumer can assume that the independent variable is nominal level data and the dependent variable is continuous level data. ANOVA represents analysis of variance.
Anxiety: The galvanic skin response (GSR) is a measure of anxiety.
Applied research is active and pragmatic, but guided by the theories and findings of basic research.
Archival research is one types of research that may not need informed consent.
Archival research: A researcher accessed information on the Internet from a series of surveys of women that was conducted during the 1970s and 1980s. The data were analyzed to examine changes in attitudes and behaviors over time. Archival research was used.
Assent is the “...affirmative agreement to participate in research. Mere failure to object should not, absent affirmative agreement, be construed as assent.” Source: 45 CFR 46.402(b)
Audiotaping and videotaping can be used in data collection if participants know what is to be recorded. Participants' knowing what is to be recorded is one agreement that must be secured.
Authority: Accepting the information in professor's lecture without asking about the basis of the information is a reliance on authority.
Autonomous person — “An individual capable of deliberation about personal goals and of acting under the direction of such deliberation.” Source: National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. 1979. The Belmont Report — Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: Part B, section 1, “Respect for Persons” (
Behavioral studies must be reviewed for possible sources of physical and psychological stress.
Beneficence is achieved when: The researcher's rights are not of primary importance. Beneficence is achieved when the well-being of research participants is protected.
Case study: A researcher uses interviews and many types of psychological and medical tests to study a woman who had surgery to remove a part of her brain.
Ceiling effect: The dependent variable was score on a measure of comprehension of material. Virtually everyone in all conditions of the experiment answered all questions correctly. Researchers refer to this situation as a ceiling effect.
Central limit theorem: The means of samples from a normally distributed population are themselves normally distributed, regardless of the sample size n used to calculate the mean. This is a robust theorem! As sample size increases then the means of samples drawn from a population of any distribution will approach a normal distribution.
Chi-square is a statistical test for nominal data.
source
Communication and Mass Media Complete: The research database for use in this course. Obtain quantitative research articles that you can use for your MA Project/Thesis proposal here: http://www.park.edu/library/
Compensation — May include money, other material compensation, such as a coupon or gift certificate, or other non-monetary rewards. This is used to encourage people to take time to participate.
Children — “Persons who have not attained the legal age for consent to treatments or procedures involved in the research, under the applicable law of the jurisdiction in which the research will be conducted.” Source: 45 CFR 46.402(a) Chi-square is computed on categorical or nominal data. You cannot conduct research on children in this course.
Clinical trial — “...a prospective biomedical or behavioral research study of human subjects that is designed to answer specific questions about biomedical or behavioral interventions (drugs, treatments, devices, or new ways of using known drugs, treatments, or devices).” Source: US Department of Health and Human Services Grant Application (PHS 398) Part II: Supplemental Instructions for Preparing the Human Subjects Section of the Research Plan (
Coded data — Identifiers are removed from the data in exchange for codes that correspond to the identifiers, and the identifiers are maintained separately from the rest of the dataset.
Coercion — Influencing an individual’s decision about whether or not to do something by using explicit or implied threats (loss of good standing in a job, poor grades, etc.). Source: Faden, R and T Beauchamp. 1986. A History and Theory of Informed Consent. NY: Oxford University Press, p. 339. You canNOT use coercion of any kind.
Combined set of variables: A multiple correlation is a correlation between one variable and a combined set of variables.
Communication studies as a social science uses both quantitative methods and qualitative methods. Rhetorical or humanistic methods are not social science methods.
Conceptual replication: A study that uses different procedures for manipulating and measuring variables from another study is called a conceptual replication.
Conditions: A researcher studied the effect of defendant gender (male-female) and type of crime (robbery-embezzlement) on juror decisions. There are four conditions in this study.
Confederate is someone who pretends to be participating in the research but is really helping the researcher.
Confidence in a theory increases when the results of a study are consistent with a theory.
Confidence limits: The upper and lower values between which the true mean will lie with particular probability (e.g. 95% or 99%). For large samples (n > 30) the 95% and 99% confidence limits are given by:
Confounded variable: A researcher studied the effect of defendant physical attractiveness on juror decisions. The attractive person was 20 years old, and the unattractive person was a 45-year old. The problem here is that age is confounded with attractiveness.
Consistency in the use of data collection procedures helps to establish reliability. Validity is achieved when the measure actually measures what it purports to measure, in other words, the measurement does what it is intended to do.
Construct validity question: A researcher developed a measure of shyness and is now asking whether this measure does in fact measure a person's true state of shyness.
Content analysis as a quantitative research method is an analysis of a communication text (e.g., Webpage, Internet discussion emails). Numerical counting is involved in this case. The researcher may search for certain themes in the text by actually counting, for example.
Content Analysis (Colorado State University) http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/research/content/
Content Analysis (U Texas) http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/content.html
Content Analysis (PAREonline.net) http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=17
Text Anayzer
http://www.usingenglish.com/resources/text-statistics.php
The Qualitative Methods Workbook,
by David W. Stockburger
Contingency analysis: Two-way chi-square, two-dimensional chi-square, contingency table are names for a contingency analysis.
Control series: When Donald Campbell compared fatalities in Connecticut and nearby states before and after a police speeding crackdown, he used the control series.
Convergent validity example: Scores on a final exam are related to student grade point average, the amount of time spent studying for the exam, and class attendance.
Core Assessment: Park University uses this term to identify the major assignment for evaluation in a course. In this course, you will prepare a proposal for a research experiment, which could be used for your MA project. This proposal may be the real proposal you plan to use or a step toward your final proposal. One aspect of the Core Assessment is required for the dropbox or in person each week. See the "Assignments" link at the lower left of the eCollege course screen. Chapter 1 of the APA Publication Manual, particularly chapter 1 gives instructions. Obviously, the proposal does not have the Results or Discussion section.
Correlation coefficient provides information about the strength of the relationship between variables.
Correlation: Couples who share more similar attitudes indicate that they are more satisfied with their relationship. This reflects a positive correlation.
Criterion validity: My measure allows me to successfully predict future behavioral outcomes. My measure has criterion validity.
Cronbach's alpha: An indicator of reliability based on the correlations of each item in a measure with every other.
Cross-sectional designs confound developmental changes and cohort effects.
Curvilinear relationship: you must have at least three levels of the independent variable in your experiment.
Debriefing is the session that the experimenter holds with participants following an experiment.
Debriefing is used to deal with issues of stress or deception and for education about psychological research.
Debriefing participants is talking with participants immediately following the research activity to explain the purpose of the study and to provide information that was withheld from participants.
Deception — Misleading research participants about the research purpose or procedures. You are NOT permitted to use deception in this course.
Deductive and inductive research models: In both models, the first activity is to identify the research problem or topic.
Deductive research model: Identifying the research problem begins the deductive research model.
Degrees of freedom is n -1.
Diminished autonomy — An individual with restricted capability of deliberation about personal goals and of limited ability to act under the direction of their deliberations. Developed in contrast to the concept of the “autonomous person” in The Belmont Report. Source: National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. 1979. The Belmont Report — Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: Part B, section 1, “Respect for Persons.” ( http://www.nihtraining.com/ohsrsite/guidelines/belmont.html )
Dependent variable is the observed variable in an experiment or study, which is changed by one or more independent variables.
Development of theory leads to asking new questions and starting the process again.
Demand characteristics: You are concerned that participants in your study may be figuring out exactly what you are studying. You are worried about demand characteristics.
Description of behavior (example): "Interviewers rate job applicants more favorably when they are wearing a pleasant scent than when they have no scent."
Directional hypothesis: A nondirectional hypothesis states that a relationship or difference will occur but does not state the direction of the relationship or difference. "Nurses' communication of role expectations to parents will increase satisfaction with nursing care," is an example of a directional hypothesis.
Discussion section: You are reading a paragraph in a journal article; the topic of the paragraph is the implications of the results for future research.
Discussion section: A full description of the conclusions is found in the discussion section.
Double-barreled: The question, "Do you think that television should have less violence and fewer shows about sex" is considered.
Dropbox: Where online students submit weekly Core Assessment assignments and other major work. See the link at the top of the eCollege course screen.
Economic efficiency assessment: After comparing the effects of jail and a drug treatment program on persons convicted of drug-related offenses, a researcher analyzed the societal costs of each. The researcher has conducted economic efficiency assessment.
Empirical test of an idea about behavior must be conducted so the idea can either be supported or refuted.
Ethics. Think about the ethics of an experiment. What might affect whether someone would be ethical? Your answer should be one supported by a principle in the course materials.
Equipoise — Substantial scientific uncertainty about which treatments will benefit subjects most, or a lack of consensus in the field that one intervention is superior to another.
Ethical risk can be present in survey research in which people are asked questions about themselves. Be very careful about how you phrase questions.
Ethically, research conducted today probably has fewer ethical problems that research conducted 30 years ago.
Exact replication: A replication in which the original procedures are duplicated is called an exact replication
Existing natural groups: It seems impossible that the use of existing natural groups of participants will results in equivalent groups for the experiment.
Experiment. True experiments are those where the experimenter can select the participants randomly, assign the participants to treatment conditions randomly, and control the manipulation of the independent variable. The quasi-experimental design lacks one or more of these features. True experimentation requires at least two groups, one receiving an experimental treatment and one not receiving the treatment (control group), or receiving it in different form. The true experiment requires the manipulation of at least one independent variable, the random assignment of participants to groups, and the random assignment of treatments to groups. The experiment is the tool of science. An experiment is a scientific test which tests a theory or hypothesis. One of the basic experimental models is called pretest-posttest because it involves measuring the outcome variable at one point (the pre-test), then doing something (the stimulus or intervention), and then measuring the outcomes measure again (the post-test) to see if it has changed. Probably the most common design is the Pretest-Posttest Group Design with random assignment. This design is used so often that it is frequently referred to by its popular name. the "classic" experimental design. In a true experimental design, the proper test of a hypothesis is the comparison of the posttests between the treatment group and the control group. The most rigid experimental design is the Solomon four-group. The Solomon Four-Group Design is sophisticated in that four different comparison groups are used. There are two experimental groups and two control groups. See Sumser p. 149.
Experimental method increases the ability to make inferences about cause and effect relationships.
Experimental realism: The participants in the study became very involved in a computer simulation. This study has experimental realism.
Experimental research is research that uses an experiment. Experimental research is defined essentially as research in which the causal (independent) variable(s) can be manipulated in order to change an effect. Because of this element of manipulation, researchers in using experimental methods are expected to maintain a good degree of control throughout the period of the study to establish with confidence that cause and effect occurred.
Experimental research design means you will design a scientific experiment in communication studies. A survey is In designing your scientific experiment, you will need research question that can be tested by an experiment, operational definitions or the independent and dependent variable, a control group, randomization of participant subjects, and ABA or similar design. Experimenter expectancies: An experiment was conducted entirely on the Internet. This procedure probably eliminated the problem of experimenter expectancies.
Explanation of behavior (example): "A pleasant scent increases favorability of ratings because the scent creates a positive emotional state in the interviewer."
External validity: When you discuss the extent to which your results would apply to other people or settings, you are concerned with external validity.
Factorial design: If a study has two or more independent variables, it is called a factorial design.
Feedback: A researcher is designing a study on the effect of defendant attractiveness on juror decisions. To investigate whether participants perceive the two defendants as different in attractiveness, the researcher should use a manipulation check.
Field experiment is conducted in a real situation, outside the laboratory.
First Person. In scholarly writing, some academics say never use the first person pronoun. Avoid “I.” The point of the rule is to force writers to think in general terms, outside of themselves.
Focus group research: Uses a small group of people who meet together to discuss the ideas being researched. Multiple small groups may be used.
Focus Group Research click here.
Focus Group Research click here.
Generalizability: A jury decision study used a male judge. A way to increase generalizability would be to replicate the study with a female judge.
Health and Human Services regulations requires informed consent is necessary in many cases of research on human subjects. The proper approach is to submit any proposal using research on human subjects to the Institutional Research Board.
Heuristic: Scientific research must be based on evidence because even experts can disagree. Heuristic research findings should lead to more questions..
Hypothesis is an educated guess or a presumption based on the review of the research literature, which is written in the form of a simple sentence. The hypothesis comes BEFORE the research is conducted. Testing Hypotheses
Hypothetical: Proposed or possible.
Incomplete disclosure — Withholding some information in order to conduct an unbiased study, with the understanding that the information could be material to a decision by prospective participants about whether or not to participate in the study.
Independent variable: The independent variable presumably is the cause of change in the dependent variable.
Inference: Conclusions drawn AFTER the research is concluded. The hypothesis comes BEFORE the research is conducted.
Inferential statistics are used to draw conclusions about a population by examining the data from a sample. Concepts and Applications of Inferential Statistics, by Richard Lowry
Informed consent is asking people whether they wish to participate in a study after telling them all of the potential risks and benefits. Informed consent is necessary when participants A) voluntarily agree to participate in your research project. B) are randomly selected to participate in your research project. C) are other university-age students. D) are deceived in some way during the research process. Informed consent is not required in every single research study. Institutional Research Boards are reluctant to okay deception. Intentional deception must be justified. Informed consent is a legally-effective, voluntary agreement that is given by a prospective research participant following comprehension and consideration of all relevant information pertinent to the decision to participate in a study.
Institutional review board (IRB or SSIRB) does review your research proposal prior to data collection to determine if the rights and welfare of research participants are adequately protected.
Interaction effect: The effect of motivation depended on whether there was a clear standard for excellence. This sentence implies that there was an interaction effect.
Interaction: Dr. Fox studied the effect of attractiveness on juror decisions. Dr. Ramirez studied the effect of type of crime on juror decisions. What would be gained by studying both independent variables in one experiment?
Internal validity refers to the ability to draw inferences about cause and effect relationships between variables. Internal validity is the ability to infer that that the independent variable caused the effect on the dependent variable is called internal validity. The reasons why the independent variable might not have caused an effect on the dependent variable are called threats to internal validity.
Inter-rater reliability: When two or more judges make ratings of observed behaviors, it is important to examine inter-rater reliability.
Interrupted time-series design: When a researcher makes multiple observations before and after a change is implemented, the design is called an interrupted time-series design.
Intervening variable: A change in the independent variable causes the change in the dependent variable. An intervening variable is presumed to explain or provide a link between the independent and dependent variables.
Interviews: Researchers ask respondents questions via email, telephone, or face-to-face. General Guidelines for Conducting Interviews click here.
Intuition and authority can be good sources of ideas.
IRB: Many of the federal regulations requiring compliance by Institutional Research Boards at colleges and universities were a result of unethical research behavior years ago.
Investigator — “OHRP considers the term investigator to
include anyone involved in conducting the research. OHRP does
not consider the act of solely providing coded private
information or specimens (for example, by a tissue repository)
to constitute involvement in the conduct of the research. Note
that if the individuals who provide coded information or
specimens collaborate on other activities related to the conduct
of this research with the investigators who receive such
information or specimens, then OHRP would consider such
additional activities to constitute involvement in the conduct
of the research. Examples of such additional activities include,
but are not limited to: (1) the study, interpretation, or
analysis of the data resulting from the coded information or
specimens; and (2) authorship of presentations or manuscripts
related to the research.” Source: OHRP, HHS. 2004. Guidance on
Research Involving Coded Private Information or Biological
Specimens. (
http://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/humansubjects/guidance/cdebiol.pdf
)
Justice is achieved when all participants are treated as equal and benefit from participating in the study.
Legally authorized representative — “An individual or judicial or other body authorized under applicable law to consent on behalf of a prospective subject to the subject’s participation in the procedure(s) involved in the research.” Source: 45 CFR 46.102(c)
Longitudinal is over time: A documentary film director made a series of films about the lives of a set of children when they were 7, 14, 21, 28, and 35 years of age, i.e., in the films 7-Up and 14-Up.. This type of "research design" is longitudinal.
Main effect is the effect of one independent variable averaged over the other independent variables.
Main effect of type of crime: Participants gave longer sentences for embezzlement than robbery, irrespective of gender. This implies that there was a main effect of type of crime.
Manipulation check: A researcher is designing a study on the effect of defendant attractiveness on juror decisions. To investigate whether participants perceive the two defendants as different in attractiveness, the researcher should use a manipulation check.
Mean: The most widely used measure of location. The sum
of all observations divided by the number of observations.
Sample means are symbolized by 
(x(bar)), while population means are generally symbolized as m.
You want to know if males and females differ in the
length of recommended sentence for someone found guilty of
driving under the influence of alcohol. You ask males and
females to indicate the number of weeks of jail time the
convicted person should receive. When you describe your results,
you will compare means.
Measures. In constructing a measure, the researcher needs to write effective questions. a. Ask one question at a time. b. Don't ask loaded questions. c. Ask positive questions. d. Keep the questions short.
Median: The “middle value” if the data are listed in rank order. If there are two central values (n even) then the median is simply the average of these. The median is a useful statistic when we are dealing with highly skewed data. You conducted a survey of students in your school. You report that half the students work 25 hours per week or less. The statistic you used is the median.
Meta-analysis is a statistical procedure to combine the results of many studies that investigated the same variable.
Method is the procedures or the way the research is conducted. Method section of a research report includes a description of exactly how the study was designed and conducted. Research Methods Cyberspace Resources
Minimal risk — “The probability and magnitude of harm or discomfort anticipated in the research are not greater in and of themselves than those ordinarily encountered in daily life or during the performance of routine physical or psychological examinations or tests.” Source: 45 CFR 46.102(i)
Mode: The most commonly observed value (or set of values) in a data set. For continuous variates we cite the modal class (or classes). The mode is a useful characteristic when we wish to quote the most “fashionable” observation.
Mortality refers to the fact that participants may drop out of experiments.
Mundane realism: A study on fear of medical procedures was conducted in a room on campus that had been decorated as a doctor's office has mundane realism.
Naturalistic observation: A researcher is granted permission to become involved with a college basketball team--attending practices and team meetings, accompanying coaches on recruiting trips, regularly talking with players, etc. The researcher used naturalistic observation.
Negative case analysis: A researcher tries to explain why a particular observation does not fit with a theory that is used to explain other observations. This is called negative case analysis.
No risk classification: A researcher records the tips left at a restaurant. The amount of the tip is related to size of the check, and the number and gender composition of people in the party.
Nominal scale level of measurement: Whenever you divide people into groups, you probably using a nominal scale level of measurement.
Nominal scales of measurement have no quantitative properties. Think of nominal as name or category.
Nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design allows a researcher to assess the effects of an independent variable by examining change from pretest to posttest.
Nonexperimental method have potentials problems in the study of relationships between variable regarding direction of cause and effect or when "third" variable may be responsible for the relationship.
Nonexperimental method relationship that might be studies is: The effect of parental use of alcohol on aggressive behavior of children.
Independent variable is the variable that is manipulated in an experiment.
Nonprobability sample: A nonprobability sample is usually acceptable when the goal of the research is to examine relationships between variables.
Normal distribution: An important continuous distribution, characterized entirely by its mean m
Null hypothesis is the implicit complementary statement to the research hypothesis and tested by a statistical test to determine significance. The null hypothesis says "there is no significant difference."
Observational research: The researcher looks at people's behavior in their natural setting.
Observational Field Research click here.
Observational Research click here.
One-tailed t-test does not test for a significant difference in either direction.
Open-ended type of question is most likely to be used when the researcher is just starting to explore what people think about a particular topic.
Operational definitions are useful because they offer specificity about the operations used in the study. A study may have several operational definitions for different terms or concepts (constructs) used in a study. Operationalization is a conceptual scheme is a framework for connecting a set of concepts together. Operationalism explains exactly how a variable is observed and measured. The point of operationalization is to let the reader know what you mean by key concepts. Operationalizations are designed to allow a member of your audience to understand what it is that you actually did. You operationalize not so that people will agree with your understanding of a concept but so they may know what you are talking about, regardless of whether they would operationalize it in a similar fashion.
Oral defense: A face-to-face or virtual interaction, where the researcher orally defends the value of the proposed--or completed--research and the design of the study.
Outcome evaluation: Your county has just developed a new procedure for helping juveniles who are arrested. Does the new procedure result in fewer arrests in the future? This is a question of outcome evaluation.
Outlier: a data point that is an "unusual" observation
and likely should be discarded. Note: The median is less
affected by outliers than is the mean. A number that is far
apart from the rest of the data; an extreme value either much
lower or much higher than the rest of the values in the data
set. Outliers are known to skew means or averages. Many
researchers will remove outliers to increase the accuracy of
their calculations.
p: probability. The probability of an event is the number of favorable cases divided by the total number of (equally possible) cases (p = probability).
Paired comparison t-test: A paired comparison t-test does not look for the relationship between two continuous-level variables.
Panel study: A panel study is used to study changes in survey responses over time.
Peer-reviewed journal article means that before the article is published, other scholars review (usually at least three) the quality of the study. The study's author doesn't know who is reviewing and making comments and the reviewer's don't know who wrote the article (blind review). The reviewers help the editor make a decision about the quality of the research and whether the article should be published. This process is used to ensure the best possible quality of research publication.
Percentages: You want to know if males and females differ in preferences for dogs and cats as pets. You ask males and females to indicate whether they prefer dogs, cats, or neither dogs nor cats. When you describe your results, you will compare percentages.
Permission — “The agreement of parent(s) or guardian to the participation of their child or ward in research.” Source: 45 CFR 46.402(c) Pilot study is a good way to "debug" a study.
Placebo — An inactive intervention designed to resemble, as much as possible, its active counterpart in clinical research.
Placebo group is used to control for alternative explanations in studies of the effect of drugs.
Plagiarism in this course is failure to use APA style when
crediting the source of ideas or information. Academic
dishonesty includes unethical behavior, such as falsification of
data. Plagiarism is when a student does one of the following:
1. Uses an author's abstract or other published words when assigned
to write in the student's own words.
2. Fails to use quotation marks when providing a direct quotation.
3. Fails to cite the source of quoted or paraphrased ideas.
4. Uses part or all of an assignment turned in previously in
another course.
5.Uses part or all of an assignment written by another student or
someone else.
Positive linear relationship which have increases in the levels
of one variable are associated with increases in the levels of a
second variable.
Prediction is a statement about the expected relationship between variables.
Prisoner — “Any individual involuntarily confined or detained in a penal institution. The term is intended to encompass individuals sentenced to such an institution under a criminal or civil statute, individuals detained in other facilities by virtue of statutes or commitment procedures which provide alternatives to criminal prosecution or incarceration in a penal institution, and individuals detained pending arraignment, trial, or sentencing.” Source: 45 CFR 46.303
Probability. The probability of an event is the number of favorable cases divided by the total number of (equally possible) cases (p = probability). This definition is the basis of theoretical mathematical probability. Sampling designs can be categorized into two basic types. probability and nonprobability. A probability sample is one in which everyone in the population has a known chance of being included in the sample. A nonprobability sample is any sample in which there is not a known chance of being included. Probability samples use some form of random sampling in one or more of their stages. Nonprobability samples do not use random sampling; they thus lack the virtues being discussed, but are still often necessary and unavoidable. Their weakness can to some extent be mitigated by using knowledge, expertise, and care in selecting samples, and by replicating studies with different samples. Probability
Probability sampling techniques: Each member of the population has a specifiable probability of being sampled.
Probability sampling: You wish to make a precise estimate about the characteristics of a population of individuals. You should use probability sampling.
Proposal. A proposal is a plan or blueprint for a research experiment--or other type of research--which in this case could be used for your MA project. Chapter 1 of the APA Publication Manual, particularly chapter 1 gives instructions. Obviously, the proposal does not have the Results or Discussion section. Notice the glossary entry "Proposal Contents" for what the proposal needs to contain.
Proposal Contents. In your MA thesis proposal or experimental research proposal for this course, you will want to include this information:
This is what I've been thinking about. (theory)
This is what other people have said about what I've been thinking about. (review of relevant literature)
This is what I think I would find if I looked to test my ideas. (hypotheses)
By the way, when I say "X," I mean this and that. (operationalization)
This is my plan for looking. (design)
These are the kinds of people, places, and things I am going to look at. (sample)
Here is my pretest and posttest (measure).
See the APA manual p. 10 for parts of the manuscript. You can use those headings.
Qualitative research relies on observation to represent the quality of interaction. Quantitative research uses measurement and observation to represent communication phenomena as amounts, frequencies, degrees, values, or intensity.
Quantitative research uses numerical analysis (statistics). Quantitative research relies on deductive reasoning. Theory is always relevant in research, which is the basis of the propositions tested in the study.
Questionnaire Design and Analysis Activities,
by Allison Galloway
Questionnaire Design and Analysis: A Workbook
by Alison Galloway [excellent source]
Questions should be avoided in the research proposal, except for the research question(s) guiding the research. The research question needs to be narrow, focused, and open-ended because it will guide your research process.
Questions about attitudes and behaviors: questions about demographics such as age and gender should be first in a questionnaire or interview.
Questions: Personal interest, social importance, and theoretical significance are criteria for distinguishing important questions from trivial ones.
Random number: To select a random number (to use in a sample, for example), most researchers use a computer program. You can also use a chart of random numbers. You can use Excel, for example. You can find generators on the Internet, for example.
Random sampling: Random sampling is extremely difficult when conduct research on human subjects. Instead of using a random selection process, a researcher typically draws the sample from the group of people he or she wishes to study. This involves an assumption, common in experimental research, that aside from the quality in which the researcher is interested. Selection into experimental and control groups must be done randomly.
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values. Perhaps the simplest measure of dispersion in data, but by definition, it is strongly influenced by extreme untypical values. Range is the span. You expected to find that age is related to more conservative political attitudes. However, your study found that the two variables were not related. Before you conclude that the two variables are not related, you should examine the range of values on your age variable.
Ratio Scale: Reaction time to respond when a stimulus is presented and distance (in inches) that two people stand from each other when conversing have ratio scale properties.
Research question needs to be narrow, focused, and open-ended because it will guide your research process. An effective research question asks a question that is:
About a problem in communication, preferably related to organizational leadership.
About a topic you are very interested in.
Answerable.
Challenging.
Identifies the independent and dependent variable.
Singular without multiple parts (ask only one question).
Not answerable with a yes or no (open-ended).
Not too general or too narrow, but focused and specific.
Realistic given time, money, and other constraints.
Reactive Measure: A measure is reactive if it changes the behavior being measured.
Real Research Proposal: The actual MA project proposal you submit to your advisor and committee.
Regression Toward The Mean: This is a statistical fact. In an experiment, post-test scores move closer to the mean. A pre-test is apt to have a wider range of scores and those more extreme scores will move toward the mean on the posttest. Although not quite the same thing, something similar seems to happen in Deal or No Deal, where the extreme money amounts are selected out (there are fewer) and more money amounts in the middle remain (the probability is higher because there are more. Here's an interesting tutorial,
Reliability: Researchers' consistent use of data collection procedures is one aspect of achieving reliability, as is when participants react similarly to data collection and when researchers using the same measure receive similar results. Reliability may be an issue in systematic observation.
Repeated measures: All things being equal, repeated measures design is likely to result in a statistically significant effect.
Repeated measures (within-subjects): The same people participate in each condition of an experiment. What type of design is repeated measures (within-subjects).
Replication: Replication is repeating a study to see if the results happen the same way twice. The research design has to be clear enough that if someone wanted to replicate your work, it would be possible to do so.
Research is the process of asking questions and finding answers. Research is conducted by students for classroom assignments and by scholars to contribute to the public good. Scholarly research is reviewed by other experts in the field. The best research is driven by theory, validates a theory, further explains a theory, challenges an existing theory, or aids in the creation of theory. Experimental research is research that uses an experiment as the design method. Quantitative research uses numerical analysis (statistics).
Research process: Once your preliminary research question is developed, you should A) evaluate your question for its communication orientation. If your topic is not clearly focused on communication, the topic is not appropriate for this department. B) check to see if the question is clearly stated. C) check to see if the question is phrased in such a way that it is not biased toward a particular answer. D) determine if there is a way to observe or measure the communication phenomenon of interest. Six Phases of the Research Process, by Marion Joppe
Research Question: Hypotheses and research questions are rules for looking for something. In the hypothesis, you tell us what you expect to find. The research question is not so specific. If your ideas are not formulated in such a way that you can generate clear hypotheses, you can use research questions instead. Research questions and hypotheses are ways of letting your reader know exactly what you are looking for.
Respect for persons in research is achieved when: A) research participants are treated as capable of making decisions for themselves. B) researchers take extra steps to protect those participants who are not capable of making their own decisions. C) participants voluntarily participate in the research project. D) participants volunteer and feel no coercion.
Response rate: The number of people who complete a survey in relation to the number of people contacted to participate is called the response rate.
Review of literature is theory-building based on communication theories from peer-reviewed journal articles. This information should be organized around a few key theories, concepts, or themes that emerge from the current research body in communication studies. Focus on current resarch (2000 or more recent). This information contains your synthesis of the findings obtained from many studies on a particular topic. Also known as survey of literature.
Risk: Any time you ask questions of people, if they are of a sensitive nature or might arouse some sensitive feelings, there are potential risks.
Sample: Sampling
refers to taking a portion of a population or universe as
representative of that population or universe. This definition
does not say that the sample taken--or drawn, as researchers
say--is representative, but they are considering the sample to
be representative. In research, a representative sample means
that the sample has approximately the characteristics of the
population relevant to the research in question. We cannot ever
be sure that a sample is accurate and the research is correct. A
sample drawn at random is unbiased in the sense that no member
of the population has more of chance of being selected than any
other member. Random samples are more likely to include the
characteristics typical of the population if the characteristics
are frequent in the population.
Sampling Methods
Sampling Methods
Sampling Terminology
Sample size: Although a minimum of one hundred is common for the effectiveness of certain statistical tests, there is no magic number. You never need a certain proportion of the population. There is always a point of diminishing returns when the cost of adding additional people has less and less of a payoff. The size of the sample is less important than the representativeness of the sample. Ideals aside, the biggest determinants of sample size are time and money. A researcher interested in attitude change designed an experiment that examined the effect of age (18-25 years of age, 35-50, and over 60) and type of media (newspaper, radio, television) on attitude toward a tax increase for local schools. In a completely independent groups design with 20 participants per condition, the researcher needs to study 180 people.
Scales of
Measurement: Stevens defines four sets of rules or
scales of measurement:
nominal - classify in two or more categories
ordinal - rank order from highest to lowest (Most behavioral and social science
data are ordinal. However, through certain scaling methods and assumptions, it
can be considered as interval scaled data.)
interval - has equal intervals, which is uncommon in communication studies
ratio - highest and most precise, has true zero point, which doesn't seem
feasible in communication studies.
Scales types:
# Nominal Data
* classification data, e.g. m/f
* no ordering, e.g. it makes no sense to state that M > F
* arbitrary labels, e.g., m/f, 0/1, etc
# Ordinal Data
* ordered but differences between values are not important
* e.g., political parties on left to right spectrum given labels 0, 1, 2
* e.g., Likert scales, rank on a scale of 1..5 your degree of satisfaction
* e.g., restaurant ratings
# Interval Data
* ordered, constant scale, but no natural zero
* differences make sense, but ratios do not (e.g., 30°-20°=20°-10°, but 20°/10° is not twice as hot!
* e.g., temperature (C,F), dates
# Ratio Data
* ordered, constant scale, natural zero
* e.g., height, weight, age, length
http://www.stat.sfu.ca/~cschwarz/Stat-201/Handouts/node5.html
Science: Science is a systematic way of study, which includes prediction, observation, testing, and checks. Scientific research is systematic, controlled, empirical, amoral, public, and critical investigation of natural phenomena. It is guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations among such phenomena. A basic aim of science is to find causal relations so we can predict. Additionally, we work to create theories and advance knowledge.
SCIENCE ATTITUDES
http://www.ksu.edu/biology/pob/modern_attitudes.html
Scientific method is an approach to investigation. Steps are often a variation of this method: Pose a question. Conduct preliminary research (pilot study). Formulate an educated guess that answers the question (hypothesis). Develop a procedure or method. Collect data and make observations. Write up results and discuss conclusions. Scientific Method
Scientific writing style. No opinion, no analogies, nothing flowery. Everything is straight-forward as an objective observer would write.
Single-subject designs can be conducted with multiple participants.
Social Science Citation Index could help you find articles by authors who cited the author(s) of an important article you find on a topic.
Sociometry is the study of the way people
interact through their social relationships in a group or a
network.
Sociometry
Standard deviation is the best measure of variability of responses doesn't work with a nominal scale. The square root of the variance. This important measure of dispersion is essentially an attempt to undo the effect of squaring when the variance is calculated. The standard deviation of a population as estimated from a sample is symbolized (s) and is given by:
Standard error: A term used to describe the standard deviation of any estimate. It is particularly used to refer to the standard deviation of sample means around the population mean. When used in this context, the standard error is estimated by:
Estimated standard error = s / Ö n
Statistical regression: You identified the 15 employees in a large organization who were absent from work the most days during the previous month. You require these employees to attend a one-day program on time and stress management in an attempt to reduce absenteeism. In the following month, all of the employees improved their attendance. The improvement could be caused by the program or it might be due to statistical regression.
Statistical test: The type of statistics used to test a hypothesis. What Statistical Test is Appropriate? click here.
Statistics explanations:
HyperStat
Textbook Online -
A
New View of Statistics,
by Will G. Hopkins -
Simple Data Measurement: A Workbook,
by Alison Galloway -
Statistics at Square One
by T D V Swinscow -
Statnotes: An Online Textbook,
by G. David Garson -
StatPrimer,
by B. Gerstman
Statistics calculator: A computerized system for running statistics. Online stats calculator: click here.
Straightforward manipulation: In an experiment, words with either feminine or masculine connotation were presented on a computer screen. The participant pressed one key when they perceived a masculine word and another key when it was perceived as feminine. Reaction time was the dependent variable. The experimenter used a straightforward manipulation.
Strength of the manipulation: Strength of the manipulation is important because it increases the likelihood that the researcher will be able to detect an effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
Structural equation model: A researcher assessed the following variables in a sample of teenage males: aggressive behavior, anger, loneliness, and perceived social support from family and friends. In addition to examining the correlations among these variables, the researcher tested a proposed model of how these variable are related to one another. The researcher is using a structural equation model.
Survey as quantitative research is a method which uses a research-based method and compares the survey population with the general population. Survey often asks questions of respondents through a vehicle such as surveymonkey.com For example, you might use the PRCA-24 to compare categories of high, moderate, and low scores of people in certain job descriptions with the expected frequency in the general population. A Chi-square comparing categories could be conducted, for example. Listener Survey Toolkit
Survey of literature is theory-building based on communication theories from peer-reviewed journal articles. This information should be organized around a few key theories, concepts, or themes that emerge from the current research body in communication studies. Focus on current resarch (2000 or more recent). This information contains your synthesis of the findings obtained from many studies on a particular topic. Also known as review of literature.
Systematic observation: A researcher videotaped people while viewing political debates. Raters viewed segments of the tapes and recorded whether the people were smiling. This study used systematic observation.
Table of Random Numbers: A table of random numbers contains numbers generated mechanically so that there is no discernible order or system in them.
Test is also called a measure. A test is designed to collect data on a particular topic. Tests and Measurement
Theory: A theory is an attempt to explain or represent some aspect of reality. Theories are abstract. They are rich enough to create hypotheses that can be tested and found to be either valid or invalid. A theory must be capable of generating testable hypotheses. Theories explain currently known facts. Theories generate new knowledge.
Theory integrates data which otherwise would remain mere collections of facts. Research and theory are necessary complements to one another because research findings are integrated into a system of description, prediction, or explanation.
Therapeutic misconception — The tendency for research participants to: “downplay or ignore the risks posed to their own well-being by participation ... [due to] the participants’ deeply held and nearly unshakeable conviction that every aspect of their participation in research has been designed for their own individual benefit.” Source: Emanuel, EJ et al., eds. 2003. Ethical and Regulatory Aspects of Clinical Research: Readings and Commentary. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, p.194.
t-test characteristics include: A) restricted to one independent variable. B) restricted to one dependent variable. C) restricted to two groupings or categories of the independent variable. D) can test independent or dependent groups.
Two-way ANOVA: This statistic can test for an interaction effect.
Undue burden — Research populations must not be subject to undue burden, wherein they are “systematically selected simply because of their easy availability, their compromised position, or their manipulability, rather than for reasons directly related to the problem being studied.” Source: National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. 1979. The Belmont Report — Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: Part B, section 3, “Justice” ( http://www.nihtraining.com/ohsrsite/guidelines/belmont.html )
Undue influence — “An offer of an excessive, unwarranted, inappropriate, or improper reward or other overture in order to obtain compliance.” Source: Emanuel, EJ et al., eds. 2003. Ethical and Regulatory Aspects of Clinical Research: Readings and Commentary. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, p.37.
Unobtrusive measures reduce the problem of reactivity.
Unreliable measure has more measurement error than a reliable measure.
Validity: Validity is when something measures what it purports to measure. For example, your final exam is supposed to measure what you know regarding course content. The validity is how well the exam measures your learning. See the definitions for internal validity and external validity. External validity, for example, is concerned with how strong a statement the researcher can make about the generalizability of the results of the study.
Variable: In a research study, the dependent variable is the one that you believe might be influenced or modified by some treatment or exposure. It may also represent the variable you are trying to predict. When we talk about a relationship between variables, we usually discuss it in terms of independent and dependent variables. The independent variable is said to cause an apparent change in, or simply affect, the dependent variable. The independent variable is also known as the causal or input variable. Saying that a variable is independent is saying that there is something about the variable that causes or creates the value in the outcome variable. What we are calling independent variables are the variables we think we can most easily manipulate. Each variable must have a specific operationalization.
Variance: The most important measure of
dispersion. It is the average squared deviation of values
from their mean. If we are estimating the variance in a
population as judged from a sample (by far the most common
practice) then the variance (symbolized by s2) is
given by:
z score: The number of standard deviations from the mean is called the z-score and can be found by the formula below. For more information, click here.
Glossary taken from a variety of sources, including textbooks, http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/ , and http://www.dur.ac.uk/stat.web/glossary.htm .
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